Developments in modern means of communication

The methods are categorized into telecommunications and print media

Telecommunications.

This is a term that describes the technology of receiving and sending

messages by telephone, radio, television, telegraph, telex, facsimile or e-mail.
The message can be verbal, written or pictorial.

There are a wide range of devices in telecommunication through which

messages can be sent in a variety of ways as follows.

1. Telephone.

- This a communication device which is used to relay sound waves by

converting them into electrical signals and then reconverting them into sound
waves.

The telephone was invented in 1876 by Alexander Graham Bell, a speech

teacher in Boston Massachusetts. He was assisted by Thomas A Watson.

2. Cellphone/Mobile telephone
The development of the mobile telephone has been gradual. Mobile radio
communication began in the U.S.A in 1921. Commercial radio telephone
service were introduced in 1921 in St. Louis, Missouri

Dr Martin Cooper is considered the inventor of the first modern cellphone. He

made the first call on mobile phone in April 1973.

Standard Features of cellphones

-The following features are not standard and vary from phone to phone.

● Calculator, clock and calendar.

● Access to the internet.
● Digital camera capability.
● A variety of ringtones Limitations of cellphones.

The following are challenges and demerits of cellphones.

● They may be prone to poor reception especially where they are reliant
on internal antennas.
● Their use is dependent on the availability of electricity. The phone must
be recharged after a number of days.
● The continuous use of mobile phones has raised fears of possible side
effects of radioactive rays on human beings.
● Handsets are easily stolen due to their small size.
3. Television.

This is a public broadcasting medium that uses a point to multipoint

technology to broadcast to any use within the range of the transmitter.

Importance of Television.

● It conveys news and information from all over the world more vividly
than other means of communication such as radio.
● It is a source of entertainment as it shows music and drama
programmes.
● It is a device that may be used in educational broadcasting. Some
educational programmes are broadcast on television.
● It is used in commercial advertisement by manufacturers and
companies thus enabling them to sell their products.
● It is the best means of transmitting ideas since it commands attention.
● It is a source of employment in the television stations.
● Television has enabled humankind to bridge the gap of real-time
communication between different time zones in the world.

Disadvantages

● TV can only be viewed where there is electricity. It is expensive to install

solar panels in areas where there is no electricity.
● Pornographic programmes have eroded cultural values, especially
among the youth.
 ● Watching violent programmes has created the culture of violence
among the youth.
● Some advertisements encourage deviant behavior. For example,
advertisements of alcohol and cigarettes.
● Watching television can sometimes become addictive in some homes
thus limiting the time to participate in other activities.

4. Radio

Radios transmit and receive information at various frequencies. Radio waves

carry the signals heard on AM and FM radio receivers

The invention of the radio was the effort of several scientists.

1. Clerk Maxwell, an English mathematical scientist

(1831-1879). In 1864 he suggested the existence of air
waves
2. Heinrich Rudolph Hertz (1857-94) In 1888 he demonstrated
the existence of electromagnetic waves.
3. Ernest Rutherford (1871-1973) an Englishman succeeded in
sending radio signals
4. Oliver Lodge (1851-1940) An Englishman developed the basic
principle of tuning a radio.
5. In 1901 an Italian Guglielmo Morconi (1874-1937) invented
the radio when he sent audio transmission across the Atlantic
from Poldhu in Cornwall to Saint John, New Foundland
Canada. He also sent messages between France and England.
Radio gained prominence during the World War I as it was used to
communicate. The first radio broadcast in Britain was in 1920. The BBC was
set up in London in 1922.

Importance of radio

● Radio is easy to access since people can afford to buy the device.
● News and information from the radio is quickly received throughout the
country.
● It can also be accessed by the illiterate people who can listen and
understand the radio news if broadcast in the language they can
understand.
● Radio is used to enhance communication in transport systems like
motor vehicles, railway, ships and airplanes.
● Radios are sometimes used to broadcast educational programmes and
important government communications on issues like health, agriculture
and family planning.
● The radio is a source of entertainment. E.g through Music and drama
programmes.
● Radio can be used by manufacturers and companies to advertise their
products thus stimulating business.
● Radio communication has enhanced space exploration. Radio signals
are used to communicate with space vehicles.

5. Telegraph
This is a device or process by which messages are passed over a distance,
especially using radio signals or coded electrical signals.

Telegraph messages are sent by a code in which numbers, letters and

punctuation marks are represented by a combination of dashes and dots.

Communication through the telegraph could be rendered unreliable where

accidents and poor weather could cut telegraph cables.

6. Internet

This is a computer-based global communication network system that links

thousands of computers using telephone lines.

Results of internet

● Education has been developed since research can be done on the

internet.
● E-commerce can be done on the internet hence enhancing the sale of
goods and services.
 ● The running of government operations can be done on the internet
since the government may use it for internal communication, distribution
of information and automated tax processing.
● Internet has led to expansion of Business as people use it to interact
with other business people.
● Individuals use the internet to communicate through e-mail or other
social network platforms such as facebook, Twitter, Skype, etc.

7. Electronic Mail (E-mail)

This kind of communication is also reliant on internet. The communication is

done using either computer or mobile phones with the help of a modem.

8. Facsimile transreceiver (fax)

This is a method of transmitting text over telephone network. A written, printed

or pictorial document is scanned then sent and reproduced photographically
at the destination.

9. Telex.
This is system of direct dial teleprinter which uses a keyboard to transmit
typed text over telephone lines to similar terminals.

10. Satellites.

A Satellite is a spacecraft or an artificial device orbiting the earth, moon or

another planet, transmitting back to earth scientific information.

11. Pagers/beepers

These are portable communication message devices. In using it, the person
sending the message uses a phone and calls a pager number.

The Impact of Telecommunications Today

Positive impact

● Telecommunication has revolutionized communication through enabling

faster and easier communication between individuals.
● Telecommunication has enhanced information management.
● Telecommunication devices are also sources of entertainment.
● Telecommunication systems like television bring reality to the viewers by
transmitting live pictures.
 ● Telecommunication devices enhance cultural exchange and
understanding through showing programmes from other countries.
● Telecommunication systems have promoted water and air transport.
● Telecommunication systems have made world trade and businesses
more effective and efficient.
● Telecommunications has enabled organizations, government institutions
and individuals to access information and programmes at their
convenience.
● Countries have also improved their security systems by using radio and
radio calls and mobile tracking systems to combat crimes.
● Modern warfare has been revolutionized. Modern weapons depend on
telecommunication services that provide accurate and reliable
information.
● Remote areas are no longer inaccessible thanks to telecommunications.
● Telecommunication systems have promoted space exploration.
● Telecommunication is a source of employment in many countries.
● Governments earn revenue from telecommunication systems.

Negative Attributes to Telecommunication

● Telecommunication has promoted international social crimes such as

fraud, drug trafficking and terrorism.
● Some forms of telecommunication promote immorality among children
and the youth in the world through watching of pornographic materials.
● Some telecommunication devices cannot be accessed by many people
due to the expense of acquisition and installation.
 ● Telecommunication devices have an addictive effect for many users.
This affects speed of development in developing countries AS people sit
for long hours watching television instead of engaging in productive
activities.
● Mobile phone users risk suffering from effects of the constant exposure
to radioactive rays which may cause certain types of cancer.

Print Media
This refers to all that is printed or written down and published. For example,
journals, books, newspapers, magazines etc.

1. Newspapers.

It is an unbound publication produced at regular intervals and devoted

primarily to current events and advertisements.

Types of Newspapers.

Daily Newspapers

- These print atleast one edition every weekday. Some print morning and
evening edition when necessary.

Weekly Newspapers.
These are published once a week.

2. Periodicals.

These are publications released at regular intervals and containing news,

feature articles, poems, fictional stories etc

3. Magazines

These are periodical publications with specialized information on particular

issues. They are published fortnightly, weekly or monthly.

4. Journals

These are periodicals with a narrower target audience such as scholarly

publication. They specialize in particular themes or professions.

Impacts of modern means of communication(KLB Hist BK1, page 52-53)

Development of Industry

Industry is the manufacture of goods from raw materials.

Early sources of Energy

Energy is the force that produces motion and does work.

The earliest sources of energy used by man were wood,wind and water.

Wood

It was the most common source of energy that man has relied on for fuel
from ancient period to date. It became a source of energy after the
discovery of fire by man during the middle stone age.

Uses of wood

■ Making fire to heat and warm people during cold seasons

■ It is used to make food
■ It was used to protect humankind from wild animals by
lighting bonfires at night.
■ It facilitated hunting by frightening animals into pit traps
■ Fire from wood provide light at night
■ Better tools were made by firing pottery and smelting iron
using wood fuel
 ■ Charcoal made from wood fuel that provided heat used for
steaming water to provide steam power for steam engines
during the industrial revolution

Disadvantages of wood(KLB Hist BK2 pg56)

Advantages(pg56)

Wind

Wind is moving air with the capacity to create energy on objects upon
contact.

Uses of wind

In China, it was used to drive sailing ships during the trade between
the East African coast and the Far East.
In China, windmills were used to grind grain and processed foods.
They were used to pump water from the polders of the Netherlands.
In Kenya windmills are used for pumping water in many parts of Kenya
such as Isiolo, Garissa, Wajir and Mandera.

Advantages and disadvantages of wind(KLB pg 56)

Water

Water has been used as a source of energy for a long time. Water from
waterfalls, lakes and Seas has been harnessed to produce hydro-electric
power.

Today it is used to turn turbines to produce HEP

Advantages of water(KLB pg 57)

Disadvantages of water(KLB pg 57)
Uses of Metals in Africa

The period when humankind used metals to make items in Africa is known
as the age of metals. The age is divided into

-The Bronze Age

-The Iron Age

However the metals used were iron, bronze, gold tin, copper and silver.

Man moved from the stone-age period to the metal age because metals had
the following advantages

1. They are durable as they did not break easily like stone tools.
2. The cutting edges could be sharpened. Stone tools went blunt
easily.
3. Malleable molten metals could be reworked to produce metals
of varying shapes with different designs and patterns as new
commodities.
4. They are not prone to waste e.g. a broken spear could be
smelted and reworked into an arrow

The age of metals began on the eastern end of the Mediterranean basin
before spreading to Europe and Africa.

Gold
Gold was the first metal to be used by man. It was found in river beds and
earth’s surface. It is malleable i.e. could easily be moulded into the desired
shape without smelting.

It was used in Meroe, Egypt, Wangara in Ghana, Mali and in Central Africa
(Mwene Mutapa and Katanga kingdoms)

Disadvantages

Tools made from Gold could break easily since Gold is soft.

It was heavy

It could not be found everywhere on the earth’s surface.

Uses of Gold

1. Making of ornaments and decoration. In Egypt it was used

in making jewellery such as rings, bangles and bracelets.
2. It was used to make utensils such as plates, vases and
drinking vessels.
3. It was used to make swords, and flint knifes handles which
were common among the rich in Egypt.
4. It was used to make coins e.g. in Egypt
5. It was used as a trade item in Central and West Africa e.g. in
Zimbabwe
6. Used to make weapons such as swords and knife blades
7. It was a measure of wealth in Egypt since it is precious.
8. Making of ritual tools: – Statues of gods, alters and Golden
stool by Asante.
It was too soft therefore people had to find another metal that was stronger.
This led to the invention of copper to replace gold.

Copper

It was first used by the Egyptians around 3000BC. Copper was melted and
further hardened by mixing it with zinc to form brass and with tin to form
bronze.

Uses of Copper

■ Making utensils and containers such as pots and pans

■ Made axes, tools, chisels, pans and fish hooks in Egypt, and
also making of daggers
■ Making ornamental bangles, rings, helmets, needles, wire
chains and statutes
■ The Pharaohs artworks were made of copper
■ Used as a medium of exchange in form of copper bars
■ Was a trade commodity in West Sudan and Benin
■ Made alloys and tough mixtures such as bronze and brass.

Advantages and disadvantages of copper(KLB pg 59)

Bronze

It is a mixture of an alloy of copper and tin. The mixing made it harder than
copper.
The period when bronze was used to make tools and weapons is known as
the Bronze Age.

In Africa, it was widely used in Nigeria among the Yoruba, Dahomey and the
Asante in Benin.

Benin became a centre for bronze.

Uses of Bronze in Benin

1. Used for making weapons such as shields, arrowheads,

swords and daggers. Swords from bronze were stronger than
those made from copper.
2. Making sculptures and decorations. In Benin it was used to
make objects used in religious ceremonies, masks and the
decoration of the king’s palace. It was used for plaque for
kings and figurines.
3. It was used in making of containers, knives, pans and vases
4. It was a store of wealthe. in Benin kings measured their
wealth in terms of bronze
5. It was an item of trade in Benin.

Uses of Bronze in early Egypt

1. It was used to cast statues of the Pharaohs

2. To make special tools for cutting and shaping huge stones for
making pyramids
3. To make tools such as hoes, chisels, blades and adzes
 4. For making of weapons such as swords, daggers, axes, spears
etc
5. Making of items of decoration.

Disadvantages

1. Tools lost their sharp edge and quickly became blunt because
it was relatively soft. They therefore required constant
sharpening
2. It was expensive e.g. a mixture of copper and tin had to be
acquired through trade
3. It was hard to get an equal amount of the same metal. This
led to the need for iron.

Iron

There are two theories that explain the origin and spread of iron working.

1. The diffusion theory. This theory holds that iron was first
introduced in North Africa from the Middle East by the
Phoenicians and Assyrians and eventually reached the rest of
Africa.
2. The Independent Theory. This theory suggests that the art
of iron working developed independently in Africa. This is
evidenced by the archeological works in Buhaya, NW of
Tanzania.

The Hittite who lived in the present day Turkey were the first people to smelt
and use iron around 1500 B.C.
The Assyrians learnt the skill from the Hittites. The skill then spread to the
West Asia, Mediterranean region and Europe.

By 5th Century A.D the Use of iron was common in Meroe from there it
spread in the Sudan

It was also based at Carthage and Tunisia from where it spread to West
Africa at Taruga in Nigeria’s Jos plateau and in the Lake Chad region.

Factors that led to the spread of Iron working skills

1. Trade between West Africa and Mesopotamia

2. The Bantu in the Congo basin and the Southern Cushites
spread iron smelting skills to West Africa, Central and South
Africa.
3. It was spread by travelers and messengers through the art of
giving or receiving gifts of iron which they took to their
homes. Intermarriages also helped in spread.
4. It was spread through warfare as the Hittites involved Egypt
5. Development of agriculture influenced its spread due to the
demand for better iron tools to till the land.

Uses of Iron

1. It was used as a medium of exchange i.e. iron bars were used

as currency
2. To make agricultural tools such as hoes and pangas which
increased food production
 3. Made weapons such as spears and arrows which strengthened
the political might of some kingdoms
4. Was used as a trade commodity i.e. those who didn’t have it
acquired it through trade
5. It was used as a store of value or wealth.

Effects of iron working

The discovery of iron affected communities in the following ways

1. Use of farm tools such as hoes, axes improved agriculture.

Large forests were cleared and more land brought under
cultivation. The result was increased food production
2. More food led to population increase which further led to
migration
3. It led to specializatione. division of labour among the
people. There were those who took part in weaving, pottery
cloth making and smelting
4. It increased warfare due to availability of weapons such as
spears, and arrows. It led to the rise of powerful states such
as ancient empire of Ghana and the Rozwi in Central Africa,
Nubia, Kush and Buganda.
5. Led to migration since communities were better armed and
could easily protect themselves from their enemies.
6. Trade developed between communities as demand for iron
ore and tools increased.
7. It led to the rise of Urban centresg. Meroe in Sudan, Cairo,
Tunis and Axum.
 8. Widespread use of iron led to the decline of the use of other
metals such as copper and bronze.
9. The possession of iron weapons made it possible for
communities to improve their system of defense.

THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN EUROPE

Development of more efficient sources of energy and durable metals

provided a background to the industrial revolution.

The growth of industries was gradual and was marked with significant
changes. In Europe, the period between 1750 and 1850 A.D is referred to as
the industrial revolution.( This is the rapid economic and technological
changes which saw the replacement of cottage industries with factory
system in Europe from the 18th C)

It was marked with rapid changes in the production of goods on a large

scale.

In Europe the revolution was marked by two phases the first phase was from
1750-1850 The second phase from 1850 to the present.

It began in Britain and later spread to other European countries e.g. the
countries got industrialized as follows France 1825, Germany 1840, Belgium
1870, USA between 1861-1865, Japan just before 1900.

Characteristics of the industrial Revolution in Europe

1. Use of machines to replace human and animal labour

 2. Use of steam power as a source of energy to replace water,
wind and animal power.
3. Increased exploitation and use of coal, iron and steel.
4. Rise of factory system in towns instead of cottage industries
in homes.
5. Development of better forms of transport including use of
railways and water
6. Improvement in standards of living in the human population
7. Production of goods on a large scale
8. Development of science and the application of scientific
knowledge in production
9. Development of trade as manufactured goods were sold
locally
10. Rise in modern capitalism that provide enough wealth
11. Growth of trade union movements to cater for the rights of
industrial workers.

Uses of various sources of energy

During the revolution, various sources of energy were used. This included
coal, oil, steam and electricity. Later new sources such as electric, solar
energy were also used.

Coal

Was an important source of power in Britain and Germany. It was a source of

fuel, coke, coal gas and coal tar. It was used to smelt iron.
Abraham Darby in 1709 discovered that coal produces intense heat when
turned into coke.

Uses

■ To heat water to high temperatures so as to produce steam

■ To provide lighting
■ Drive steam engines in factories e.g. some steam engine
generators depended on coal.
■ To drive locomotives
■ It was used as a raw material in the manufacture of dye and
pharmaceutical products.

Disadvantages of coal

■ It is bulky and transporting it is difficult

■ It produces too much smoke when used in locomotives which
causes air pollution
■ It is expensive to mine and transport to the required
destination
■ Mining it also causes accidents by burying miners alive

Petroleum

The term petroleum is derived from a Greek and Latin words Petra – rock or
stone and oleum – oil. It therefore means rock oil.
In its crude form, it is dark coloured, thick flammable oil found in
sedimentary rocks. It is formed from fossil remains of tiny animals and
plants. It was discovered to be a fuel by Bissel in America.

In the 19th century better methods of refining petroleum were discovered.

They separated crude oil to produce petrol, paraffin, diesel oil, and
lubricating oil, aviation fuel, cooking gas, grease and tar.

Uses of oil

1. To power vehicles, aeroplanes and machinery

2. Generate electricity used in lighting and cooking
3. Run engines in industries
4. Tar (bitumen) is used to tarmac roads
5. Greasing of metals in Industries was done by petroleum
by-products
6. Certain petroleum products are used in making of drugs,
fertilizers and synthetic fibre.

Countries with oil wells have made greater progress in industrial

development. This is because oil is cheap and easy to transport compared to
coal. It’s transported through pipelines.

Disadvantages of oil

1. It is expensive to transport
2. Mining it is expensive too
 3. It can cause environmental pollution e.g. in Nigeria the oil
spills have affected agricultural land. Sometimes outbreaks of
oil fire destroys crops.

Steam

When boiling water turns to gas, it is referred to as steam. Steam power was
first used in steam powered engines in 100 A.D

Thomas Savery from Britain built a steam engine which could pump water
out of the coal mines in the 16th century. It was improved upon by Thomas
Newcomen in 1712. James Watt improved on it making it smaller and more
efficient in 1764.

In 1801, Richard Trevithick installed Watt’s engine in a road vehicle.

Uses of Steam

1. Used to drive heavy machinery in factories and to turn

turbines which generated power for industrial use.
2. For pumping water out of coal mines
3. Used in steam powered locomotives and ships
4. Opening massive temple doors in Egypt.
5. Steam provided heat for homes and large building during old
seasons.

Disadvantages of steam
 1. Steam production relied on coal hence it was expensive
2. Since it was used in heavy machinery, it was inaccessible for
domestic use
3. Steam engines were heavy and hard to operate.

Electricity

It was discovered by an English scientist called Michael Faraday (1791-1861)

when he invented the electric dynamo. He is referred to as the father of
Electricity.

It is through this power that H.E.P (Hydro-electric power) was generated.

Electricity is also generated from geothermal, solar and nuclear sources. Use
of electricity is controlled by use of switches.

Uses of Electricity

1. Lighting factories and homes

2. Heating e.g. iron furnaces and cooking
3. Powering machines in factories
4. Communication, electric signals are used in many
communication gadgets
5. Powering transport vehicles such as electric train and electric
cars.

Advantages of electricity

1. It is cheap to produce
 2. It does not pollute the environment
3. It can be produced in one area and used in an area far away
4. Factories and homes can get electricity from one source.
5. It is easily controlled from one switch where it is turned on
and off.

Disadvantages of electricity

1. Can be dangerous if not properly installed or used. Many have

lost their lives through electrocution.
2. Generation, distribution of electricity is very expensive. This
limits its use.
3. It relies heavily on natural water supply which is affected by
climatic changes
4. Hydroelectric power plants disrupt the ecosystem.

Advantages of electricity during industrial revolution

1. Goods were manufactured faster because electricity helped to

power machines
2. There was increases iron and steel production as a result of
smelting
3. Transport and communication improved. Trains moved goods
faster
4. Communication improved as electric signals were used
5. It improved lighting of industries even at night.

Other sources of Energy

They include Biogas, Atomic and solar energy.

Atomic Energy

Its development is attributed to the work of a French physicist called Antoine

Henri Beckquerel who in 1896 discovered that Uranium produces radiation or
energy in waves. This is known as radioactivity, a term coined by a French
couple Marie and Pierre Curie who further discovered that two more chemical
elements Uranium and polonium also produced radiation.

Nuclear energy is produced when atoms of radioactive elements like uranium

are split (atomic fission, discovered by Hahn and Stressman in 1938)

The first nuclear reactor was built in America in 1942 by Erico-Fermi.

Further research has led to the manufacture of atomic bombs which used at
Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.

Many European countries including Britain, the USA and the former Soviet
Union have spent a lot of money in manufacturing of atomic weapons.

Today atomic power is used in some developing countries to generate

electricity e.g. in Belgium and France.

The Russians and Americans have atomic powered submarines.

Other countries have atomic powered locomotives and aeroplanes. It’s also
used to produce radioactive elements for medical use.

Disadvantages

1. It is fatal on human beings when used in war.

 2. Radioactivity endangers animal and plant life and crops.
Where there has been radioactive accidents, it has caused
fever, diarrhea and death e.g. of radioactive accidents of the
Three Mile Island in the U.S.A in 1985 and at Chernobyl near
Kiev in the Ukraine, in 1986.

Solar Energy

It is obtained directly from the sun. Energy produced by the sun is used to
dry firewood, clothes and cook food among other things.

In 1714, Antoine Lavoiser made a solar furnace which could melt metals.

In 1880s, a solar engine was used to run a printing press.

The first solar cell which turned sunlight into electricity was made in 1954.

Solar water heaters are used in Japan, Israel, U.S.A and many tropical
countries.

Uses of Solar energy

1. Drying agricultural products

2. Distilling of salty water to get salt crystals
3. Heating water in homes and industry
4. Heating and lighting houses
5. Cooking using solar cookers
6. Irrigating using solar water pumps
 7. Powering satellites in space.

Advantages of solar energy

1. Its clean and is available in places where sunlight is readily

available
2. It is free – natural
3. It is non-pollutant and inexhaustible source of energy

Uses of Iron and Steel

Metals such as iron, steel were used to make machines, engines and railway
locomotives. During the industrial revolution, there was an increase in the
production of machinery. This depended on the availability of iron

The uses of iron included

■ Production of machines for the textile industry water pipes

and ploughs were made out of iron
■ Production of steam engines
■ Building of trains, railway lines, ships, wheels, bridges and
coach frames

The use of iron was restricted since it was too heavy, not very strong and
could easily rust.

In 1856 an Englishman named Henry Bessemer produced steel out of iron

and carbon.

Steel, an alloy of iron and Carbon is lighter, flexible and harder than iron.
From mid 19th century steel replaced iron as the preferred metal.

Uses of Steel

1. Construction of railway lines, bridges, cars and ships.

2. Manufacturing of machinery especially in the agricultural and
industrial sector.
3. Reinforcing concrete in buildings and roofing houses.
4. Making food containers and utensils.

INDUSTRIALISATION IN BRITAIN

Britain was the first European nation to industrialise in the 18th and 19th
century. She had a wide range of goods which were manufactured in large
quantities from located factories in various towns.

However the industrialization of Britain was facilitated by the following

factors

1. She had accumulated a lot of wealth from her trade with

other countries and her colonies in Africa and America. She
used this capital to invest in industry.
2. She enjoyed a period of political unity, peace and stability
that favoured industrial activities.
3. Britain had a stronger military. Her navy was able to protect
her merchants from foreign competition in the waters.
4. She had raw materials such as cotton, cocoa, sugar, copra
and palm oil from her colonies in America, Indies and Africa
following agrarian revolution.
 5. Mineral resources such as coal which provided energy
required and iron used in the manufacture of machinery
existed.
6. Existence of a good banking and insurance system which
boosted her industrial growth. Banks e.g. Bank of England
were already giving credit facilities.
7. She had enough skilled human labour for her industries
following displacement of people from rural areas during
agrarian revolution.
8. Her high population provided a domestic market for the
manufactured goods.
9. She had a free trade policy which promoted industrialization.
There were no internal barriers which would have negatively
industrialization.
10. Good communication network encouraged
industrialization by improving transportation of raw materials
to the factories and manufactured goods to the market.
11. Production of goods by the cottage industries helped
industries to produce goods in large quantities.
12. Acquisition of new skills in science and technology e.g.
invention of the steam engine and electricity stimulated
industrial growth.
13. Industrialisation in Britain enjoyed government support
and goodwill. Government policies ensured all industrial
objectives were achieved.

INDUSTRIALISATION IN CONTINENTAL EUROPE

France, Germany, Russia and Belgium developed their industries after
Britain. This delay was caused by political upheavals in Germany, France and
Italy.

They had a feudal economy when land was farmed by the loyal subjects of
the land owner. The Peasant farmers could not afford to buy industrial goods
or even raise funds to invest in industry.

They had inadequate raw materials and poor transport system. These
countries did not have an enterprising class of people and scientists.

The other countries joined in the quest for industrialization in the 19th
century. France e.g.

1. Had iron ore

2. Napoleon's government encouraged industries and
constructed railways
3. Government introduced tariffs to protect her markets from
other European countries.

Factors that led to Industrialisation in continental Europe

1. Political stability after feudalism was abolished. Germany and

Italy were united and Napoleon rule came to an end in
France.
2. European countries had raw materials after going through the
Agrarian revolution. Iron ore and coal were already available.
Need for raw materials led to colonization of Africa.
3. High population in these countries provided both skilled and
unskilled labour required by industries.
 4. There was adequate capital to enable the industries expand.
Britain gave loans or credit facilities to the industrialists. Note
that desire by European industrialists to invest their surplus
capital led to colonization of Africa.
5. Existence of banking and insurance services boosted the
growth of industries
6. Improved means of transport and communication, which
transported workers, raw materials and manufactured goods.
This also made them expand to Africa.
7. Presence of a domestic and an external market for
manufactured goods. Need for market for manufactured
goods made them look for colonies hence colonization.
8. European governments supported economic ventures such as
industry that were aimed at enhancing economic growth e.g.
French and Germany governments built railway networks and
reduced taxation to encourage industrialization.
9. New skills in science and technology i.e. many European
countries sent their people to Britain to acquire new ideas in
science and technology which they used to improve their
industries.
10. Availability of various sources of energy such as coal,
steam power and electricity.

Effects of the industrial Revolution on European Societies

Economic effects

1. Development of machinery which replaced human labour

therefore increased agricultural production.
2. New methods of farming and new crop breeds were
developed
3. Development of local and international trade. Manufactured
goods were sold locally while others exported to America, Asia
and Africa. Africa served as a source of raw materials.
4. It led to improvement of means of transport and
communication which facilitated the movement of labour, raw
materials and manufactured goods
5. Industrial revolution led to urbanization as a result of
rural-urban migration
6. Many European countries became wealthy e.g. Britain
7. It led to diversification of European economies. This led to job
specialization. Some people became traders, others bankers,
mechanics and agriculturalists.
8. It led to increased exploitation of natural resources such as
iron, coal and steel. This motivated the use of new sources of
energy such as solar energy and electricity.
9. Use of scientific methods in farming and production of farm
tools which increased production
10. Governments set up legislation that introduced social
reforms such as education, pension and insurance. Workers
too formed trade unions and co-operative societies.
11. It led to rural-urban migration as job opportunities were
created with mechanization. Unemployment became a serious
problem.
12. It promoted the development of science and technology
i.e. invention of electricity.
Social Effects

1. It led to rural-urban migration which led to overcrowding in

towns and creation of slums
2. There was the problem of poor sanitation which led to
outbreak of diseases such as Typhoid and T.B
3. Increased pollution due to the emission of poisonous gases by
the factories and industries
4. Unemployment increased leading to poor living conditions.
Vices such as begging, prostitution, drug and alcohol peddling
became alternative means of earning a living.
5. There was an increase in demand for services provided by
hotels, post offices, banks and insurance companies.
6. It led to the vice of social classes in Europe. The rich grew
richer while the poor became poorer. Peasants were usually
exploited in farms and factories.
7. It led to gender inequality, i.e. women and children who
worked in factories were exploited in that they worked for
long hours with little pay.

Political Effects

1. It facilitated the scramble and partition of Africa. The colonies

produced raw material for industries in Europe and also acted
as markets for goods processed in Europe.
2. It gave rise to Marxism i.e. communal ownership of
property(socialism) as opposed to capitalism (industrial
ownership of property)
THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

The period during which man developed interest in knowledge is referred to

as rebirth or the renaissance.

During this time, scholars gained new knowledge which led to many
scientific inventions and discoveries in fields such as energy, medicine,
agriculture etc.

Science is the systematic study of the nature and behavior of the material
and physical universe based on observation, experiment and measurement.

Scientific inventions

This is linked to ancient civilization in Egypt, Sumeria, Greece, China and

India.

Egypt and Sumeria (Mesopotamia) made early inventions in fields of

astronomy, architecture, medicine and math.

Egyptians used their knowledge in math to build pyramids for their

pharaohs. They discovered Geometry which they used on their farms. They
had knowledge in medicine which enabled them preserve bodies or keep
them as mummies for a long time.

Greeks too contributed to science e.g. Pythagoras contributed to math

especially the right angled triangle. A Greek mathematician Euclid is known
for his works in Geometry.

Archimedes discovered how the lever works. He also studied floating

bodies. Ptolemy too is remembered for his work in Geography including the
production of an Atlas.
The Chinese made inventions in Mathematics and astronomy. They made
clothe from silk and also developed the acupuncture skills.

In the Middle East, the Arabs made significant contribution to medicine and
math. They studied the writings of Ptolemy and accepted the idea of zero
from the Indians which simplified multiplication.

The Muslims wrote medical books and also constructed unique mosques.

Scientific knowledge spread from one country to another as people

exchanged ideas.

In Western Europe science developed during the renaissance (rebirth of

learning) through the industrial revolution.

SCIENTIFIC INVENTIONS

Inventions in astronomy, physics, transport and communication

1. Nicholas Copernicus 1473-1543 discovered revolution of

planets around the sun.
2. Galileo Galilei an Italian 1546-1642 built the first telescope
for universe observation.
3. Sir Isaac Newton 1642-1727 discovered the laws of motion
and gravity
4. Antoine Lavoisier 1743-1794 composition of air – made of
Hydrogen and oxygen
5. John Dalton 1766-1844 a British teacher came up with atomic
theory
6. Benjamin Franklin of USA 1706-1790 theory of electricity.
Made lightning conductor.
7. Michael Faraday 1791-1867 invented electricity, dynamo,
magnetism and electricity
 8. James Maxwell 1831-1879 electromagnetic radiation waves
and the radio.
9. Thomas Edison 1879 invented the electric lamp.
10. Heinrich Hertz 1857-1894 influenced development of radio,
Tv and other communication
11. Charles Darwin 1809-1882 developed the theory of
evolution
12. Charles Lyall, a Briton earth surface has changed gradually
over millions of years
13. Alexander Graham Bell 1877 invented the telephone
14. George Stephenson 1781-1848 invented the railway
locomotive
15. Gottlieb Daimler 1887 invented the first petrol vehicle
16. The Wright Brothers 1903 invented the aeroplane

Inventions in Agriculture

1. Lord Townshend 1674-1738 recommended the use of manure

to improve fertility.
2. Sir John Bennet Laws 1843 set up super phosphate factory in
London.
3. Justus Von Lie Big 1803-1873 invented the modern fertilizer
industry
4. Robert Bakewell 1725-1795 cross-breeding for quality sheep.
5. Jethro Tull 1701 invented the seed drill
6. Cyrus McComic 1837 invented the reaper
7. Andrew Meikles 1786 made the mechanical thresher
8. Nicholas Appert, a French confectioner in 1810 developed a
canning process.
 9. Carolus Linnaeus, a Swede discovered method of plant and
animal classification.

Inventions in Industry

1. James Joule of England 1852 proved that heat is a form of

energy
2. James Watt 1769 improved steam engine. Used it in textile
industry
3. John Kay 1733 invented flying shuttle
4. James Hargreaves 1764 invented spinning jenny
5. Richard Arkwright 1769 invented water frame
6. Samuel Crompton 1779 invented spinning mule
7. Thomas Bell 1785 invented cylindrical calico printing machine
8. Edmund Cartwright 1789 invented steam power loom
9. Eli Whitney 1793 invented the cotton Gin
10. Michael Faraday 1831 invented electric dynamo
11. Otto Hahn and Stressman 1831 discovered nuclear energy

Inventions in Medicine

1. Adreas Vesalius from Italy 1514-1564 pioneered dissection of

human corpses
2. William Harvey 1578-1657 discovered blood circulation and
physiology.
3. Edward Jenner 1749-1823 discovered vaccine for small pox
4. William Morton 1819-1868 discovered ether as pain reliever
and anesthesia.
5. James Simpson, a Scottish discovered use of chloroform in
surgery and childbirth.
6. Louis Pasteur, a Frenchman 1822-1895 discovered some
diseases are caused by bacteria. Heat can kill bacteria. He
came up with pasteurization process.
7. Joseph Lister a Scottish surgeon 1827-1912 use of antiseptic
sprays to sterilize the air in operation theatres. He also
discovered the use of carbonic acid to clean wounds.
8. Robert Koch 1843-1910 isolated bacteria that cause anthrax,
TB and Cholera.
9. Sir Ronald Ross 1857-1932 discovered that female anopheles
mosquito carried malaria parasites
10. Wilhelm Rontgen 1894-1923 discovered X-rays as
electromagnetic radiations.
11. Hideyo Neguchi 1876-1928 developed vaccine against
yellow fever.
12. Landsteiner 1900 devised blood grouping technique
promoting blood transfusion.
13. Alexander Flemming 1954 discovered penicillin in 1928 to
cure bacterial diseases.
14. Jonas Edward Salk 1967 discovered polio vaccine.
15. Dr Christian Bernard from S. Africa discovered how to
perform heart transplant.
16. Other discoveries include heart valve replacement in 1961,
soft contact lenses in 1965, test tube baby in 1978 and
kidney dialysis machine in 1943.
Medical scientists are working round the clock to get a cure for Malaria and
H.I.V/Aids which is threatening to wipe out human population. A lot of
money is spent on sensitizing people on the spread and effects of Aids. So
far, ARVs are used to check HIV spread in a patient’s body.

Factors that facilitated the scientific revolution

1. The period of renaissance (rebirth) encouraged further

learning, i.e. people developed interest in research.
2. Governments and individuals in Europe supported scientific
research e.g. gave funds.
3. People were faced with many problems and had to find
solution e.g. better methods of farming to curb food
shortages. The sick had to be cured, i.e. necessity is the
mother of invention.
4. Failure of religion to provide answers to questions. They saw
science as the way forward.
5. Discovery of the printing press, books, magazines, journals
led to the dissemination of knowledge and skills therefore
scientific ideas spread from one continent to another
6. Overseas exploration and discovery of new lands stimulated
learning.

Impact of Scientific Inventions

Impact of Agriculture
 1. Increased food production. Today there are farm machinery,
fertilizers, pests and diseases control methods and scientific
breading which have improved production of hybrid seeds and
cross breeding of animals
2. It has stepped up agricultural research in schools, colleges
and institutional e.g. K.A.R.I.
3. Food preservation through canning and refrigeration has
promoted farming.
4. Increased food production has led to increase in population
5. Food security has led to research into better storage facilities
and has increased trade
6. Agriculture has been diversified leading to new scientific
methods of farming
7. Farming has changed from small scale to large scale farming
due to mechanization.

Negative Impact of scientific inventions on agriculture

1. Production of chemically treated and stored food has led to

food related diseases e.g. cancer, heart diseases due to high
cholesterol levels
2. Pesticides and fertilizers are harmful to both human beings
and animals. Prolonged use has led to the rise of pest strains
resistant to pesticides
3. Prolonged use of fertilizers has impoverishes the soil fertility.
4. The development of hybrids has led to the loss of traditional
plant and animal species which are more resistant to disease.

Impact on Industry
 1. Scientific inventions have led to production of industrial goods
on large scale
2. Led to development of new forms of energy such as nuclear,
solar and electricity.
3. Improved living standards due to the processed products. Tvs,
radios, satellites have made life easier.
4. Large scale of manufacture of the industrial goods has led to
growth of trade. Countries have become more wealthy and
stronger.
5. Led to development of satellites used in space exploration,
photographing and weather research.
6. Revolutionized military technology. It has led to
manufacturing of dangerous weapons such as atomic bombs.
7. Discovery of steam engine led to the development of factories
and transport system such as the railway.
8. Development of the printing press led to the dissemination
and spread of ideas hence mass production of newspapers,
magazines and books.
9. Industries have created job opportunities including research
and scientific innovations.

Negative impact

1. Industrial waste and pollutants have led to environmental

pollution i.e. air, noise, water pollution e.g. of polluted areas
are Chernobyl in Ukraine and Bhopal in India.
2. War weapons have led to unnecessary destruction of human
life e.g. the terrorist attacks
3. Machines have impaired human labour development. Many
people have been rendered jobless.
Impact of scientific innovations on medicine

1. Medical research has led to discovery of both preventive and

curative medicine.
2. Has raised the living expectancy due to better hygiene, food
preparation methods and good nutritional values.
3. Population increase has led to decrease in mortality rate. This
has been due to the development of vaccines and curative
medicine. Diseases such as malaria, T.B and plaque have
been brought under control.
4. Production of advanced medical equipment e.g. x-rays,
computer assisted surgery
5. Manufacture of various drugs has been facilitated

Negative impact

1. The safe ways of procuring abortion results in loss of the lives

of unborn babies.
2. There are drugs which have led to drug abuse leading to
mental and behavioral disorders.
3. Continuous use of medical drugs has led to dependence on
the drugs which cause resistance and weakening of body
mechanism
4. Some medical drugs, surgical operations are expensive and
unaffordable to many people
5. Careless disposal of syringes and blood transfusion have led
to the spread of dangerous disease such as Aids and
Hepatitis.
 6. Use of modern contraceptives has encouraged immorality. It
has led to illegal abortions and death.

Factors undermining scientific revolution in developing countries

1. Lack of enough funds to invest in scientific research

2. Existence of a theoretical syllabus where science is viewed as
a difficult subject
3. Dependency syndrome where the developing countries fully
depend on developed countries for anything. This has affected
their initiative and creativity
4. Inadequate of support from the governments. No budgeting
allocation on industry and scientific work. Attention is given to
fighting poverty.
5. High level of illiteracy
6. Brain drain. Professionals often migrate to the developed
world depriving their country of trained personnel.