AQA Psychology AS-level

Topic 7: Research Methods

Detailed Notes

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Experimental Method
The experimental method concerns the manipulation of an independent variable (IV) to have
an effect on the dependent variable (DV), which is measured and stated in results. These
experiments can be: field, laboratory, quasi or natural.

Aims
An aim is a general statement made by the researcher which tells us what they plan on
investigating, the purpose of their study. Aims are developed from theories and develop from
reading about other similar research.

Hypotheses
A hypothesis is a precise statement which clearly states the relationship between the
variables being investigated. The hypothesis can either be non-directional or directional. A
directional hypothesis states the direction of the relationship that will be shown between the
variables whilst a non-directional hypothesis does not.

E.g. If a researcher is carrying out a study to investigate whether sleep helps memory
performance:

● A directional hypothesis for this would be - “The more sleep a participant has the better
their memory performance.”
● A non-directional hypothesis would be - “The difference in the amount of hours of sleep a
participant has will have an effect on their memory performance, which will be shown by the
difference in the memory test scores of the participants.”

A directional hypothesis tends to be used when there has already been a range of research carried
out which relates to the aim of the researcher’s investigation. The data from this previous research
would suggest a particular outcome. However if there has been no previous research carried out
which relates to the study’s aim or the research is contradictory than a non-directional hypothesis is
appropriate.

Independent and dependent variables

The independent variable refers to the aspect of the experiment which has been manipulated
by the researcher or simply changes naturally to have an effect on the DV which is then
measured. The dependent variable is the aspect of the study which is measured by the
researcher and has been caused by a change to the IV. All other variables that could affect the
DV should be carefully controlled so that the researcher is able to confidently conclude that the
effect on the DV was caused by only the IV.

In order to properly test the effect of the IV we need different conditions: the experimental condition
and the control condition. You can have various experimental conditions which will allow you to
compare the effects of different levels of the IV.

Operationalisation of variables
Operationalisation refers to the act of a researcher clearly defining the variables in terms of
how they are being measured. This means the variables should be defined and measurable. The
hypotheses states should also show this operationalisation e.g. the aforementioned directional
hypothesis would be even better if operationalised:

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“Participants that get at least four hours of sleep will show better performances on the
memory test, shown by them achieving higher scores than the participants that got less
than four hours of sleep.” It could even be further operationalised when more details of the
investigation are given, such as the number of questions in the test, hence the maximum score a
participant can achieve.

Control of Variables
Extraneous variables and confounding variables
In an experiment, the only aspect that should affect the DV is the IV. Any other variables that may
interfere with the IV or the DV should be removed from the experiment or well controlled. Such
variables can be confounding or extraneous. An extraneous variable refers to any other
variable which is not the IV that affects the DV and does not vary systematically with the IV,
they are essentially nuisance variables. Examples are the lighting in the lab or the age of
participants - these variables do not confound the results of a study but just make them harder to
detect.

A confounding variable is also described as a variable other than the IV which has an effect on
the DV. Unlike the extraneous variable, confounding variables do change systematically with the
IV. With these variables it becomes difficult for the researcher to be sure of the origin of the
impact of the DV as the confounding variable (not the IV) could have been the cause. An example
for the aforementioned sleep study would be time of day the experimental task is done - those who
complete the memory test later in the day may be more tired and therefore do worse, obscuring the
true relationship between lack of sleep and memory performance. Therefore, potential confounding
variables must be identified and controlled; in this case the participants should take the test at the
same time of day.

Demand characteristics and Investigator effects

Demand characteristics refer to any cue the researcher or the research situation may give
which makes the participant feel like they can guess the aim of the investigation . This can
cause the participant to act differently within the research situation from how they would usually
act. This is as participants from the start of the experiment are trying to figure out what's going on
in this new situation they find themselves in - this is known as participant reactivity. They may
change their behaviour to fit the situation rather than acting naturally.

They may act in a way they think the researcher wants them to which is known as the ‘Please-U
effect’ or they may intentionally underperform to sabotage the study’s results, the ‘screw-U
effect’. This unnatural behaviour then affects the validity of the results, hence demand
characteristics provides a problem for research.

Participant reactivity may also lead to investigator effects which refers to any unwanted
influence from the researcher’s behaviour, either conscious or unconscious, on the DV
measured (the research’s results). This includes a variety of factors :- the design of the study,
the selection of participants and the interaction with each participant during the research
investigation.

Randomisation and Standardisation

To minimise the effects of extraneous or confounding variables different steps can be taken by the
researcher like randomisation and standardisation. Randomisation is the use of chance to

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reduce the effects of bias from investigator effects. This can be done for the design of
materials, deciding the order of conditions, the selection of participants e.t.c.

Standardisation describes using the exact same formalised procedures and instructions for
every single participant involved in the research process. This allows there to eliminate
non-standardised instructions as being possible extraneous variables.

Experimental Method: Types of Experiment

Design Description Strengths Limitations

Laboratory An experiment that High degree of control- Experimenter’s bias- this

takes place in a experimenters control all bias can affect results and
special environment variables,the IV has been participants may be
whereby different precisely replicated, influenced by these
variables can be leading to greater expectations.
carefully controlled. accuracy. Low ecological validity-
Replication - researchers high degree of control
can repeat experiments makes the situation artificial,
and check results. unlike real life.

Field An experiment Naturalistic - so more Ethical considerations-

conducted in a more natural behaviours hence invasion of privacy and
natural environment, high ecological validity. likely to have been no
not in a lab but with Controlled IV informed consent.
variables still being Loss of control- over
well controlled. extraneous variables hence
precise replication not
possible.

Quasi An experiment Controlled conditions- Cannot randomly allocate

whereby the IV has hance replicable, likely to participants to conditions
not been determined have high internal validity. so there may be
by the researcher, confounding variables
instead it naturally presented. This makes it
exists e.g gender harder to conclude that the
difference studies. IV caused the DV.

Natural An experiment in Provides opportunities- Natural occurring events-

which the IV is not for research that would may be rare this means
brought about by the have otherwise been these experiments are not
researcher hence impossible due to likely to be replicable hence
would have happened practical or ethical hard to generalise findings.
even if the researcher reasons. Very difficult to
had not been there High external validity- as randomise- participants
e.g. if studying you are dealing with real into groups so confounding
reactions to life issues. & extraneous variables
earthquakes. become a problem.

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Sampling
The researcher needs to decide how they select participants to take part in their investigation.The
population is a group of people from whom the sample is drawn.

E.g. If the sample of participants are taken from the sixth formers going to schools in
London, the findings of the study can only be applied for that certain group of people and
not all the sixth formers in the UK.

There are various methods that a researcher can use to select participants:

Sampling Method Explanation Strengths Limitations

Opportunity Participants happen to Easy method of Not representative of

sampling be available at the time recruitment which is the whole population
which the study is being time saving and less hence lacks
carried out so are costly. generalisability.
recruited Researcher bias is
conveniently. presented as they
control who they want
to select.

Random sampling This is when all No researcher bias - Time consuming-

members of the researcher has no need to have a list of
population have the influence of who is members of the
same equal chances picked. population (sampling
of being the one that frame) and then
is selected. The contacting them takes
method used is :- each time.
member of the Volunteer bias-
population is assigned participants can
a number then either a refuse to take part so
random number table can end up with an
or a random number unrepresentative
generator or the sample.
lottery method is used
to randomly choose a
partner.

Systematic A predetermined Avoids researcher Not truly unbiased

sampling system is used bias and usually unless you use a
whereby every nth fairly representative random number
member is selected of population. generator and then
from the sampling start the systematic
frame. This numerical sample.
selection is applied
consistently.

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Stratified sampling With this method the No researcher bias- Time consuming to
composition of the the selection within identify strata and
sample reflects the each stratum is done contact people from
varying proportions randomly. each.
of people in particular Produces A complete
subgroups (strata) representative data representation of the
within the wider due to the target population is
population. Firstly you proportional strata not possible as the
identify strat. Then you hence generalisation identified strata
calculate the required is possible. cannot reflect all the
proportion needed for differences between
each stratum based on the people of the
the target population. wider population.
Then select sample at
random from each
stratum using a random
selection method.

Volunteer sampling Involves self selection Quick access to Volunteer bias- they
whereby the participant willing participants study may attract a
offers to take part either which makes it easy particular profile of a
in response to an and not time person. This means
advert or when asked consuming. generalisability is then
to. As participants are affected.
willing to take part Motivations like
they are more likely money could be
to cooperate in the driving participation so
study. participants may not
take study seriously,
influencing the results.

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Experimental Design

Design Description Strengths Limitations Solution

Independent The participants -There are no - No control over Random

groups only perform in order effects participant allocation solves
design one condition of presented. variables the first limitation
the independent - Participants are whereby different mentioned.This is
variable (IV). less likely to abilities of as it ensures that
guess the aims of participants in the each participant
the study various has the same
(demand conditions can chance of being in
characteristics cause changes to one condition of
are eliminated). the DV.. the IV as another.
- You need more
participants than
other designs to
gather the same
amount of data.

Repeated The same - Eliminates - Order effects Counterbalancing

measures participants take participant presented e.g. - this is when half
part in all variables. boredom may of the participants
conditions of the - Fewer mean in second do conditions in
IV. participants condition done one order and the
needed, so not participant does other half do it in
as time not do as well on an opposite order.
consuming task.
finding and using
them.

Matched Pairs of - No order - Time

pairs participants are effects. consuming and
first matched on - Demand expensive to
some variable characteristics match
that has been are less of a participants.
found to affect the problem. - A large pool of
dependent potential
variable (DV), participants is
then one member needed which
of each pair does can be hard to
one condition get.
and the other - Difficult to know
does another. which variables
are appropriate
for the
participants to be
matched.

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Pilot Studies
A pilot study is a small-scale version of an investigation which is done before the real
investigation is undertaken. They are carried out to allow potential problems of the study to be
identified and the procedure to be modified to deal with these. This also allows money and time to
be saved in the long run.

Single-Blind and Double-Blind Procedures

Single-blind procedure
A research method in which the researchers do not tell the participants if they are being
given a test treatment or a control treatment. This is done in order to ensure that participants do
not bias the results by acting in ways they “think” they should act-avoids demand characteristics.

Double-blind procedure
A research procedure in which neither the participants nor the experimenter knows who is
receiving a particular treatment. This procedure is utilised to prevent bias in research results.

Double blind studies are particularly useful for preventing bias due to demand characteristics or the
placebo effect. Gives a way to reduce the investigator effects as the investigator is unable to
unconsciously give participants clues as to which condition they are in.

Control group/condition - sets a baseline whereby results from the experimental condition
can be compared to results from this one. If there is a significantly greater change in the
experimental group compared to the control than the researcher is able to conclude that the cause
of effect was the IV.

Observational Techniques

Type of observation and Strengths Limitations

description

Naturalistic- Watching and - High ecological validity - Low ecological validity if

recording behaviour in the - High external validity as participants become aware
setting where it would done in a natural environment that the are being watched.
normally take place. - Replication can be difficult.
- Uncontrolled confounding
and extraneous variables are
presented.

Controlled - Watching and - Researcher is able to focus - More likely to be observing

recording behaviour in a on a particular aspect of unnatural behaviour as
structured environment e.g. behaviour. takes place in an unnatural
lab setting. - There is more control over environment.
extraneous and confounding - Low mundane realism so
variables low ecological validity.
- Easy replication. - Demand characteristics
presented.

Overt - Participants are - Ethically acceptable as - More likely to be recording

watched and their behaviour is informed consent is given. unnatural behaviour as

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 recorded with them knowing participants know they are
they are being watched. being watched.
- Demand characteristics likely
which reduces validity of
findings.

Covert - the participants are - Natural behaviour recorded - Ethical issues presented
unaware that their hence high internal validity of as no informed consent given.
behaviour is being watched results. Also could be invading the
and recorded. -removes problem of privacy of the participants.
participant reactivity whereby
participants try to make sense
of the situation they are in,
which makes them more likely
to guess the aim of the study.

Participant - The researcher - Can be more insightful -There's always the possibility
who is observing is part of which increases the validity of that behaviour may change if
the group that is being the findings. the participants were to find
observed. out they are being watched.
- Researcher may lose
objectivity as may start to
identify too strongly with the
participants.

Non-participant - The - Researcher can be more - Open to observer bias for

researcher observes from a objective as less likely to example of stereotypes the
distance so is not part of identify with participants since observer is aware of.
the group being observed. watching from outside of the - Researchers may lose
group. some valuable insight.

Observational Designs
One problem with carrying out observations is that observer bias is easily presented. This is when
an observer’s reports are biased by what they expect to see. A solution to this problem is
checking the inter observer reliability of the observation. This is done by many researchers
conducting the observational study , their reports are then compared and a score calculated using
the formula :-

Total number of agreements / total number of observations x 100 .

The score that shows high inter observer reliability is any score above 80%.

There are different types of observational designs and each has their strengths and weaknesses:

Design and description Strengths Limitations

Unstructured- consists of - More richness and depth of - Produces qualitative data

continuous recording where detail. which is more difficult to

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 the researcher writes record & analyse.
everything they see during the - Greater risk of observer
observation bias e.g. only record ‘catch
the eye’ behaviours.

Structured- Here the - Easier as is more - Not much depth of detail.

researcher quantifies what systematic. - Difficult to achieve high inter
they are observing using - Quantitative data is collected observer reliability as filling
predetermined list of which is easy to analyse and the predetermined lists in is
behaviours and sampling compare with other data. subjective.
methods. - There is less risk of
observer bias.

Whilst conducting structured observations, behavioural categories can be used. This is when a
target behaviour which is being observed is broken up into more precise components
which are observable and measurable e.g. aggressive behaviour can be broken down to -
shouting, punching, swearing etc. When forming a behavioural categories list, it is important to
make sure that behaviours do not overlap with other behaviours, so very similar behaviours should
not be listed e.g. grin and smile. They should be clearly operationalised. During structured
interviews there are different types of sampling methods:

Method and description Strengths Limitations

Time sampling- this is the - It reduces the number of - The small amount of data
recording of behaviour within observations that has to that you collect within that
a timeframe that is made so it is less time time frame ends up being
pre-established before the consuming. unrepresentative of the
observational study. observation as a whole.

Event sampling- this involves - It is good for infrequent - If complex behaviour is being
the counting of the number behaviours that are likely to observed, important details
of times a particular be missed if time sampling of the behaviour may be
behaviour is carried out by was used. overlooked by the observer.
the target group or individual - If the behaviour is very
you are watching. frequent, there could be
counting errors.
- It is difficult to judge the
beginning and ending of a
behaviour.

Correlations
A correlation is a mathematical technique that is used to investigate an association between
two variables which are called co-variables. Correlations differ to experiments as:

● The variables are simply measured, not manipulated like in experiments.

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 ● Only an association is found, no cause-and-effect relationship found hence the terms
DV and IV are not used.

During correlational studies correlation coefficients are calculated. This value determines the
strength and the relationship between two variables. This doesn’t necessarily mean that one
variable is causing another, but that there is a relationship of some sort.

There are various relationships which can be shown between the co-variables :-

● Negative correlation - when one variable increases the other decreases. When the data is
presented on a scattergram the line of best fit has a negative gradient. It has a correlation
coefficient of less than 0.
● Positive correlation - when one variable increases the other also increases. When the
data is presented on a scattergram the line of best fit has a positive gradient.It has a
correlation coefficient of more than 0.
● Zero correlation - no relationship is found between the co-variables. When the data i s
presented on a scattergram, no line of best fit can be drawn as the points on the
scattergram are random. It has a correlation coefficient equal to 0.

Image Source

● Curvilinear relationship- as one variable increases, so does the other but only up to a
certain point after which as one variable continues to increase the other begins to
decrease. Ona graph this forms an inverted U shape. An example of such a relationship is
shown by the Yerkes-Dodson Law from the topic of Memory which shows how anxiety
affects eyewitness testimony.

Just as you have hypotheses for experiments researchers also state hypothesis for correlational
studies. A directional hypothesis states whether there will be a negative or positive
correlation between the co-variables being studies whilst a non-directional hypothesis only
states there will be a correlation but the type is unknown.

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Strengths and Limitations of Correlations:

Strengths Limitations

- They can be used as starting points to - It is difficult to establish a cause and effect
assess patterns between co-variables before relationship, really only an association is
committing to conducting an experimental found.
study. -The third variable problem is presented -
- Quick and economical to carry out. this is when there is a chance that there is
- Secondary data can be used in the another variable, a third variable which the
correlational study which makes it even less researcher is unaware of that is
time consuming. responsible for the relationship between
the co-variables.
- Lastly, correlations tend to be misused or
misinterpreted especially when made public
by the media - correlation is often presented as
causation.

Data Analysis: Types of Data

Type and description Strengths Limitations

Qualitative data- data which - More richness and depth of - Difficult to analyse.
is displayed in words , is detail. -difficult to make comparisons
non-numerical. - Allows participants to further with other data.
develop their opinions hence - Researcher bias presented
has greater external validity. as conclusions rely on the
- A more meaningful insight subjective interpretations of
into the participants’ views is the researcher (interpretative
achieved. bias).

Quantitative data- data that - Can be analysed statistically - Lack of depth in detail.
is displayed numerically, not so converted to graphs or - No meaningful insight into
in words. charts. participants' views.
- This makes it easy to make - As participants are not able
comparisons with other data. to develop their opinions the
results have low external
validity.

Primary data - this is when -Targets the exact information - Requires time and effort.
information is obtained first which the researcher needs, - Can be expensive.
hand by the researcher for so the data fits their aims and
an investigation. objectives.

Secondary data - this is when - Expensive - It may be likely that the data
information is collected by - Data is accessed so requires is outdated or incomplete.
someone else other than the minimal effort to collect. - The data may not be
researcher yet is used by the reliable- the researcher was

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 researcher for their not there when the study was
investigation. Also known as conducted so is likely to be
‘desk research’. unsure of the validity of the
results.

Meta-analysis - this is when a - More generalisability is - Publication bias such as the

researcher combines results possible as a larger amount of file drawer problem may be
from many different studies data is studied. presented- this is when the
and uses all the data to form - The researcher is able to researcher intentionally does
an overall view of the subject view the evidence with more not publish all the data from
they are investigating. confidence as there is a lot of the relevant studies but
it. instead chooses to leave out
the negative results. This
gives a false representation of
what the researcher was
investigating.

Data Analysis: Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics are the use of tables, graphs, and summary statistics to analyse data.

Measures of central tendency

These measures refer to any measure which calculates an average value within a set of data.

Measure Calculation method Strengths Limitations

Mean- arithmetic Total of all values in a - Makes use of all - It is influenced by

average. set of data is divided values. outliers (extreme
by the number of - Good for interval scores) so it can be
values. data. unrepresentative.

Median Arrange data from - Not affected by - Not as sensitive as

lowest to highest then extreme scores. mean, does not use
find the central value. - Good for ordinal all data.
data.

Mode The most frequently - Useful for nominal - Is not useful when
occurring value in a data (data in there are several
set of data. categories). modes.

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Measures of dispersion
These measures refer to any measure that calculates the variation in a set of data.

Measure Calculation method Strengths Limitations

Range Minus the lowest - Easy to calculate. - Affected by extreme

score from the highest values.
score. - Does not use all
data.

Standard Deviation The square root of the - Precise measure - Difficult to calculate.
(SD) variance calculates where all data values - Affected by extreme
SD. A low SD means are taken into values.
that more data is account.
clustered close to the
mean hence there is
less data spread

Presentation and Display of Quantitative Data

There are various ways of representing data:

Summarising data in a table

One of these ways is summarising data in a table. This is usually not in the form of raw scores but
the data has been converted into descriptive statistics for example of the form below :-
Table showing the mean and mode of scores of a memory test

Condition A Condition B

Mean 35 67

Mode 30 34

Below the table there is usually a description of what the table’s data means.

Bar Charts

This way of representing data allows for differences in data to be seen more clearly. They are used
for discrete data, which describes data that has been divided into categories. The bars do not
touch each other which shows that we are dealing with separate conditions.The amount of
frequency for each category is plotted on the y-axis (vertical axis) whilst the categories (below
these are condition A and B) are plotted on the x-axis (horizontal axis).

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Histograms

In this form, the bars touch each other unlike in bar charts and this represents that we are
dealing with continuous data rather than discrete. Therefore the x-axis has equal sized
intervals of one category (e.g. scores of an english test in intervals 0-10, 11-21, 22-32, etc.) whilst
the y-axis represents the frequency (the number of people that score each mark).

Line graphs

This form also represents continuous data , whereby points are connected by lines to show the
change of values. As per usual, the IV is plotted on the x-axis while the DV is plotted on the y-axis

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Scattergrams

These are used to show associations between co-variables rather than differences hence we
came across them in the correlations topic. Either of the co-variables can occupy the x-axis or
the y-axis, and each point displayed on the graph coincides with the x and y position of the
co-variables.

Distributions
Normal distribution is a symmetrical pattern of frequency data that forms a bell-shaped
pattern.

A skewed distribution is a spread of frequency data that is not symmetrical, instead the data
all clusters to one end. There are two types of these :-

● Positive skew whereby most of the distribution of data is concentrated on the right.

● Negative skew whereby most of the data distribution is concentrated on the left.

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Peer Review
AO1
Peer review is the assessment of scientific work by experts in the same field, it is done to
make sure that all research intended to eventually be published is of high quality.

Main purposes of peer review:

● To know which research is worthwhile hence funding can be allocated to it.

● To validate the relevance and quality of research. This is important to prevent fraudulent
research from being released to the public.
● To suggest possible improvements or amendments to the research study.

AO3
● Anonymity is a problem; reviewers sometimes use it to settle old scores or bury rivals,
especially if they're competing for funds. This means that anonymity affects the
objectivity of reviewers. Due to this, some journals have started doing open reviewing to
avoid this problem.

● There is publication bias involved in peer review. Editors tend to prefer to publish
‘headline grabbing’ findings and positive results. This brings about the file drawer
problem whereby negative results are intentionally not published. All this causes there to be
a misconception of the current state of psychology.

● It can be difficult to find an expert. Smith (1999) argues that because of this a lot of poor
research is passed as the reviewer didn't really understand the work.

● In peer review, any research that opposes mainstream theories tends to be

suppressed. This means that established scientists’ work is more likely to be published
and the new and challenging ideas are usually rejected. This means that the rate of
change in scientific fields is slowed down.

● Fraudulent research can be long-lasting which is a large problem. An example of this

is when the MMR vaccine link to autism was found by Andrew Wakefield (1998). This
finding had implications as caused the number of measles cases to increase. It was later
found that the research was fraudulent but even now there are still many people aware of
these said risks and still anti-vaccine for MMR.

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The Implications of Psychological Research for the Economy
The implications that research has refers to how what we learn from psychological research
influences our country’s economic prosperity. The economy is the state of the region's
activities of producing or consuming goods & services. Absence from work costs the
economy an estimate of 15 billion pounds a year and this absence is mainly due to mental
illness e.g. stress, anxiety. For such problems, psychology research has been able to present
solutions to them and this expresses why psychology research is important for the economy.

From the various AS and A2 topics we have learnt , research in these topics has had implications
for the economy:

Topic Links to specific areas Economy

Psychopathology Treatments - Cognitive - Workers able to return to

Behavioural Therapy and work.
Rational Emotive Behavioural
Therapy for depression, drug
therapy for OCD.

Attachment Role of the father - Tiffany - Mothers can return to work.

Field (1978) found that fathers - More flexible working
can take on the role of being a arrangements within families.
primary caregiver. - Can maximise their income
and effectively contribute to
the economy.

Social Influence Social influence leading to - Health campaigns.

social change - Minority - Unions strike- make working
influence, appealing to NSI, conditions better.
disobedient models. - Environmental campaigns-
like getting companies to
reduce their waste and use of
non-renewable energy.

Memory Eyewitness testimony - How - Led to police using the

leading questions or post cognitive interview which
event discussion can affect reduces wrongful convictions
eyewitness testimony. hence reduces waste of
money and space in jail.

Levels of Measurement
Quantitative data can be divided into different levels of measurement, either - nominal, ordinal or
interval.

Nominal data refers to a type of data that is in the form of categories. It is discrete- one item
can only appear in one category. It does not enable sensitive analysis as it does not yield a
numerical result for each participant.

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Ordinal data refers to data which is represented in a ranking form e.g. 1= hates maths,
10= loves maths. There are no equal intervals between each unit. A weakness of it is that it lacks
precision as is based on the subjective opinion of people.

Interval data refers to the type of data that is based on numerical scales which include equal
units of precisely defined size. This is the most sophisticated form of data as it is based on
objective measures. It is needed for the use of a parametric test.

Appropriate measures for each level of data:

Level of data Measures of central Measures of dispersion

tendency

Nominal Mode n/a

Ordinal Median Range

Interval Mean Standard Deviation

Introduction to Statistical Testing: Use of the Sign Test

Statistical testing provides a way of determining whether hypotheses should be rejected or

accepted. It can tell us whether differences or relationships between variables that have been
found during experiments are statistically significant or if they have only occurred due to
chance.

An example of a statistical test is the sign test. A sign test can only be used for a study that :-
● Looked for a difference not an association.
● Used a related experimental design- repeated measures design.
● Collected nominal data.

How to conduct a sign test:

● Step 1 - State the hypotheses- this includes both the alternative and the null hypothesis.
● Step 2 - Record data and work out the sign. For example, the sign will be negative (-) if the
value has decreased in the second condition but positive (+) if it has increased. If the value
has stayed the same , this value will be ignored and the N adjusted to exclude it.
● Step 3- Find the calculated value for the sign test, S, which is the number of times the less
frequent sign occurs.
● Step 4 - Find the critical value of S - use the calculated N value (which is the total number
of values with the ignored values excluded) and p≤ 0.05 which means there's a less than
5% probability that the results occurred by chance.
If S ≤ critical value- reject the null hypothesis, there is a significant difference.
If S ≥ critical value - accept the null hypothesis, there is no significant difference.
● Step 5 - State conclusion whereby you refer back to the hypothesis mentioning the IV and
Dv and support your conclusion with the exact values of -the critical value, S, N and what p
value you used.

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Ethical Issues & Ways of Dealing with Them

Issue Explanation Solution

Informed consent Participants must be told the There are various methods of
purpose of the investigation dealing with informed consent:
(their aims) and about any - Prior general consent-
potential risks they may be participants give permission to
subject to when taking part in it. take part in many studies
This allows them to make an whereby one of them involves
informed decision on whether deception so effectively they
they want to participate in the are consenting to getting
research study. deceived,
- Presumptive consent- when
Researchers don’t always wish a researcher gathers opinions
to disclose this information as it from a group like the
could lead to demand participants in the study but
characteristics being presented does not inform the actual
hence result bias. participants. Allows demand
characteristics to be
eliminated.
- Retrospective- this is when
the participants are asked for
consent after they have
participated in the study.

Deception This is the act of deliberately - Debriefing- all participants

withholding information from would be debriefed after the
participants or misleading them study, it can be a written or
during the research study. This verbal debrief. During the
is only seen as acceptable debrief the true nature of the
when the participants knowing study must be said and the
the true nature could guess the participants should be told
aims of the investigation or what their data will be used for.
when the deception will not After the debrief participants
cause distress. have the right to choose to
withhold or withdraw their
data.

Protection of harm Participants must be protected - If the participants have been

from physical and psychological subject to any stress or
harm. It is the job of the psychological harm, the
researcher to make sure of this. researcher should provide
counselling if it is required.
All through the investigation, - A Cost-Benefit Analysis
participants are also reminded should be done before a study
that they do have the right to is carried out. This is done by
withdraw, especially if the study the ethics committee whereby
is causing them harm. the pros and cons of the study
are weighed up to determine

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 whether the study will be
ethical. This can be difficult
and an example of where this
was done but went wrong is
for Zimabardo’s Stanford
Prison Experiment in 1973
(Social Influence topic).

Privacy and confidentiality Right of privacy refers to the - Anonymity can be

right that participants have to maintained. This is achieved
controlling information about by the researchers not
themselves- how much is recording any personal details
released and how it is used. It of their participants so that
can be difficult to avoid invading none of the results data can be
a participant's privacy for traced back to them. Instead
example if it is a field study- the researchers can refer to
these are done in natural the participants using numbers
environments. The right of or initials when writing up the
privacy can extend to the investigation e.g. HM case
location of the study whereby study.
the institution is not named. -The participant should be
Confidentiality refers to the reminded during both the
right participants have which briefing and debriefing of the
concerns any personal data of investigation that their data will
theirs being protected. be protected

Self-Report Techniques & Design

Self-report techniques refer to any sort of method where a person is asked to give their opinions,
feelings, experiences and behaviours in relation to a particular topic. There are two types of these
non-experimental investigations:
● Questionnaires - These assess a person’s thoughts or experiences through a number
of different written questions.
● Interviews - This involves a live encounter where a set of questions is asked by an
interviewer to an interviewee to assess their thoughts or experiences.

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Questionnaires
There are two types of questionnaires:

Type and description Strengths Limitations

Open Question - This is - Rich in depth and detail. - Difficult to convert to

when the questions are - Useful for sensitive topics as statistical data hence more
phrased in a way that the participants can elaborate on difficult to analyse.
participant is free to answer their answers.
however they like, there are
no restrictions. This type
collects qualitative data.

Closed Question - In -Easy to analyse data and - Lack of depth and detail.
contrast, this type of compare with data from - Can be limiting which can be
questionnaire consists of elsewhere. frustrating for participants.
questions which restrict you to
a fixed number of responses.
This type collects quantitative
data.

Examples:
- Likert scale- the respondent
indicates agreement with a
statement, ranges from agree
to strongly agree.
- Rating scales- a rating
scale works in a similar way
but gets respondents to
identify a value that
represents their strength of
feeling about a particular
topic.
- Fixed choice scales- the
question includes a list of
possible options and
respondents are required to
indicate those that apply to
them.

There are various strengths and limitations of questionnaires:

Strengths Limitations

- Cost-effective. - Difficult to know whether the target

- Gathers large amounts of data quickly. population it was intended for answered it e.g.
- The researcher does not need to be present. if it is online.
- They are easy to analyse. - They take a long time to design.
- As responses can be anonymous this usually - It is difficult to assess the validity as biases

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 means participants are more open. such as social desirability bias (when the
participant wants to present themselves in a
positive light so is not truthful) are presented.
- Participant bias presented from factors such
as time, age, gender.
- Response bias presented e.g. acquiescence
bias whereby participants simply agree with
all the questions, instead of putting effort into
considering an answer for each question.

Construction of questionnaires:

There are various factors that need to be thought about when designing questionnaires :-
● Clarity - the questions should be phrased in such a way that it is clear for the respondent
on what answer is needed from them.
● Avoid overuse of jargon, emotive language, double-barrelled questions, double
negatives and leading questions. All these can cause biases which affects the validity of
the results.
● Sequencing questions - easy ones can be first then followed by the harder ones. This
allows a build up of confidence in each participant.
● Filler questions - these are questions which have nothing to do with the aims of the
investigation and are put in to distract the participant from guessing the real aim of the
study. Therefore these eliminate demand characteristics.
● Pilot study - can be carried out to ensure that the questionnaire is suitable and if not
amendments and improvements can be made.

Interviews
There are two main types of interviews:

Type and description Strengths Limitations

Structured - Involves a set of - Standardisation is - Interviewer bias which can be

predetermined questions possible. presented through aspects such
being asked during the - Easily replicable. as body language, listening skills,
interview. The interviewer - Can make comparisons when to ask a question and
asks the questions and for between participants interpretative bias (how answers
each waits for a suitable easily which is a strong are recorded).
response. benefit for job interviews. - Social desirability bias.
- Not being able to elaborate can
be frustrating for participants.

Unstructured - There are no - Lots of data is collected - Skilled interviewers needed.

predetermined questions , with more depth and - Interviewer bias also presented.
instead questions develop detail. - Social desirability bias.
as the interview goes on. - As can be tailored to - Difficult to make comparisons
This allows for questions be individuals they can between participants.
tailored to individuals and is provide more insight. - The analysis of data is difficult

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 more free flowing. as may have to sift through a lot
of irrelevant data.

There can also be semi-structured interviews whereby most of the questions are already set up but
the interviewer is free to ask any follow up questions on certain answers.

Construction and design of interviews:

● Recording information - this can be done in various ways e.g. writing down answers,
using a video recorder, using an audio recorder.
● Ethical issues - Informed consent is needed from the participant for the researcher to
obtain and keep the data. The participant should be reminded that their answers will be
kept confidential.
● Location - A quiet room away from other people is the most appropriate as this location is
likely to get the participant to feel comfortable and open up.
● Neutral questions - These are usually started with to make the participant feel relaxed and
help establish a rapport.

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