Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals

and Applications, 4th edition

Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala
Lecture slides by Mehmet Kanoglu

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 Chapter 7

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND

MODELING

©McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
 A 1:46.6 scale model
of an Arleigh Burke
class U.S. Navy fleet
destroyer being tested
in the 100-m long
towing tank at the
University of Iowa. The
model is 3.048 m long.
In tests like this, the
Froude number is the
most important
nondimensional
parameter.
Photo courtesy of IIHR-Hydroscience & Engineering, University of Iowa.
Used by permission.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Objectives

• Develop a better understanding of dimensions, units,

and dimensional homogeneity of equations
• Understand the numerous benefits of dimensional
analysis
• Know how to use the method of repeating variables to
identify nondimensional parameters
• Understand the concept of dynamic similarity and how to
apply it to experimental modeling

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 7–1 ■ DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
Dimension: A measure of a physical quantity (without numerical values).
Unit: A way to assign a number to that dimension.
There are seven primary dimensions (also called fundamental or basic
dimensions): mass, length, time, temperature, electric current, amount of
light, and amount of matter.
All nonprimary dimensions can be formed by some combination of the
seven primary dimensions.
 Length 
Dimensions of force:  Force  Mass
 Time 2 

mL/t 2


A dimension is a measure of a physical

quantity without numerical values, while a
unit is a way to assign a number to the
dimension. For example, length is a
dimension, but centimeter is a unit.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Primary dimensions and their associated primary SI and English units
Dimension Symbol* SI Unit English Unit
Mass m Kg (kilogram) Ibm (pound-mass)
Length L m (meter) ft (foot)
Time† t s (second) s (second)
Temperature T K (kelvin) R (rankine)
Electric current I A (ampere) A (ampere)
Amount of light C cd (candela) cd (candela)
Amount of matter N mol (mole) mol (mole)

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 7–2 ■ DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY
The law of dimensional homogeneity: Every additive term
in an equation must have the same dimensions.

Change of total energy of a system: E  U  KE  PE

U  m(u2  u1 ) Total energy of a

system at state 1
1 and at state 2.
KE  m V22  V12
2
 
PE  mg  z2  z1 

You can’t add apples and oranges!

©McGraw-Hill Education.
   
E  Energy 
 Force  Length   
 E  mL 
2 2
/t 
 Energy 
 U   Mass    Energy   U    mL /t 
2 2

 Mass 
 Length 2 
 KE  Mass 2 
  KE  mL2 /t 2 
 Time 
 Length 
  
PE 

Mass
Time 2
Length  

 
PE  mL 
2 2
/t 

An equation that is
not dimensionally
homogeneous is a
sure sign of an error.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 The Bernoulli equation is a
good example of a
dimensionally
homogeneous equation. All
additive terms, including the
constant, have
the same dimensions,
namely that of pressure. In
terms of primary dimensions,
each term has dimensions
{m/(t2L)}.

 Force   Length 1  m

 P   Pressure     Mass 2 2
 2 
 Area   Time Length  t L
 1 2   Mass  Length    Mass  Length   m 
2 2

 V         2 
 2 
  Volume Time   Length  Time   t L 
3
2
  Mass  Length   m 
2
 Mass Length
  gz   Length    2
 2 
 Volume Time 2
  Length 3
 Time  t L
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Nondimensionalization of Equations
Nondimensional equation: If we divide each term in the equation by a
collection of variables and constants whose product has those same
dimensions, the equation is rendered nondimensional.
Normalized equation: If the nondimensional terms in the equation are of order
unity, the equation is called normalized.
Each term in a nondimensional equation is dimensionless.
Nondimensional parameters: In the process of nondimensionalizing an
equation of motion, nondimensional parameters often appear (e.g., the
Reynolds number and the Froude number).
This process is referred to by some authors as inspectional analysis.

A nondimensionalized form of
the Bernoulli equation is
formed by dividing each
additive term by a pressure
(here we use P). Each
resulting term is dimensionless
(dimensions of {1}).
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 d 2z
Equation of motion: 2
 g
dt Object falling in a
vacuum. Vertical
1 2 velocity is drawn
Dimensional result: z  z0  w0t  gt
2 positively, so w < 0
for a falling object.
Dimensional variables: Dimensional quantities
that change or vary in the problem. Examples: z
(dimension of length) and t (dimension of time).
Nondimensional (or dimensionless) variables:
Quantities that change or vary in the problem, but
have no dimensions. Example: Angle of rotation,
measured in degrees or radians, dimensionless
units.
Dimensional constant: Gravitational constant g,
while dimensional, remains constant.
Parameters: Refer to the combined set of
dimensional variables, nondimensional variables,
and dimensional constants in the problem.
Pure constants: The constant 1/2 and the
exponent 2 in equation. Other common examples
of pure constants are  and e.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 To nondimensionalize an equation, we need to select scaling parameters,
based on the primary dimensions contained in the original equation.
Primary dimensions of all parameters:
 z   L t    t  z0    L  w0    L/t  g   L/t 2 
z w0t
Nondimensionalized variable: z  t 
z0 z0

d 2z d 2 ( z0 z  ) w02 d 2 z w02 d 2 z  Froude number

2
  2
 2
 g  2
 1
dt d ( z0t /w0 ) z0 dt gz0 dt
w0
Fr 
gz0
In a typical fluid flow problem, the
scaling parameters usually include a
characteristic length L, a characteristic
velocity V, and a reference pressure
difference P0  P. Other parameters
and fluid properties such as density,
viscosity, and gravitational
acceleration enter the problem as well.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 The Froude number is important in
free-surface flows such as flow in
open channels. Shown here is flow
through a sluice gate. The Froude
number upstream of the sluice
gate is Fr1 = V1 / gy1, and it is
Fr2 = V2 / gy2 downstream of the
sluice gate.

d 2 z 1
Nondimensionalized equation of motion: 2
 2
dt Fr

  1 2
Nondimensional result: z  1 t  2
t
2Fr

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 The two key
advantages of
nondimensionalization
of an equation.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 In a general unsteady fluid flow problem with a free surface, the scaling
parameters include a characteristic length L, a characteristic velocity V, a
characteristic frequency f, and a reference pressure difference P0  P.
Nondimensionalization of the differential equations of fluid flow produces
four dimensionless parameters: the Reynolds number, Froude number,
Strouhal number, and Euler number (see Chap. 10).
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 7–3 ■ DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND SIMILARITY

In most experiments, to save time and money, tests are performed on a

geometrically scaled model, rather than on the full-scale prototype.
In such cases, care must be taken to properly scale the results. We
introduce here a powerful technique called dimensional analysis.

The three primary purposes of dimensional analysis are

1. To generate nondimensional parameters that help in the design of
experiments (physical and/or numerical) and in the reporting of
experimental results
2. To obtain scaling laws so that prototype performance can be
predicted from model performance
3. To (sometimes) predict trends in the relationship between
parameters

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 The principle of similarity
Three necessary conditions for complete similarity between a model
and a prototype.
(1) Geometric similarity—the model must be the same shape as the
prototype, but may be scaled by some constant scale factor.
(2) Kinematic similarity—the velocity at any point in the model flow
must be proportional (by a constant scale factor) to the velocity at the
corresponding point in the prototype flow.
(3) dynamic similarity—When all forces in the model flow scale by a
constant factor to corresponding forces in the prototype flow (force-
scale equivalence).

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Kinematic similarity is
achieved when, at all
locations, the speed in the
model flow is proportional
to that at corresponding
locations in the prototype
flow, and points in the
same direction.

In a general flow field, complete similarity between

a model and prototype is achieved only when there
is geometric, kinematic, and dynamic similarity.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 We let uppercase Greek letter Pi () denote a nondimensional
parameter.
In a general dimensional analysis problem, there is one  that we call
the dependent , giving it the notation 1.
The parameter 1 is in general a function of several other ’s, which
we call independent ’s.

Functional relationship between 's: 1  f   2 , 3 , ... ,  k 

To ensure complete similarity, the model and prototype

must be geometrically similar, and all independent groups
must match between model and prototype.

To achieve similarity

If  2m   2, p and  3,m   3, p ... and  k ,m   k , p ,

then 1m  1, p

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Geometric similarity
between a prototype car of
length Lp and a model car
of length Lm.

The Reynolds number is the

most well known and useful
dimensionless parameter in
all of fluid mechanics.

FD VL
  f   2  where 1  and 2 
V 2 L2 
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 The Reynolds number Re is formed by
the ratio of density, characteristic
speed, and characteristic length to
viscosity. Alternatively, it is the ratio of
characteristic speed and length to
kinematic viscosity, defined as  =/.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 For the special case in which the
wind tunnel air and the air flowing
over the prototype have the same
properties ( m = p, m = p), and
under similarity conditions (Vm =
VpLp/Lm), the aerodynamic drag
force on the prototype is equal to
that on the scale model. If the two
fluids do not have the same
properties, the two drag forces are
not necessarily the same, even
under dynamically similar
conditions.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 If a water tunnel is used instead of a wind tunnel to test their one-fifth
scale model, the water tunnel speed required to achieve similarity is
 m    p   Lp 
Vm  V p      
  p   m   Lm 
 1.002  103 kg/m  s   1.184 kg/m3 
  50.0 mi/h   5   3 
5  16.1 mi/h
 1.849  10 kg/m  s   998.0 kg/m 

One advantage of a water tunnel

is that the required water tunnel
speed is much lower than that
required for a wind tunnel using
the same size model (221 mi/h
for air and 16.1 mi/h for water).

Similarity can be achieved even

when the model fluid is different
than the prototype fluid. Here a
submarine model is tested in a
wind tunnel.
Courtesy NASA Langley Research Center.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 7–4 ■ THE METHOD OF REPEATING VARIABLES
AND THE BUCKINGHAM PI THEOREM
How to generate the
The Method of Repeating Variables
nondimensional parameters,
i.e., the ’s? Step 1: List the parameters in the problem
and count their total number n.
There are several methods
that have been developed for Step 2: List the primary dimensions of each
this purpose, but the most of the n parameters.
popular (and simplest) Step 3: Set the reduction j as the number of
method is the method of primary dimensions. Calculate k, the
repeating variables. expected number of II’s,
k n j

Step 4: Choose j repeating parameters.

A concise summary of Step 5: Construct the k II’s, and manipulate
the six steps that as necessary.
comprise the method of
Step 6: Write the final functional relationship
repeating variables. and check your algebra.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Step 1 List of relevant parameters: z  f  t , w0 , z0 , g  n5
z t w0 z0 g

Step 2 L 
1
t  1
L t 
1 1
L 
1
L t 
1 2

Step 3 Reduction: j2

Number of expected 's: k  n j  5 2  3

Step 4 Repeating parameaters: w0 and z0

Setup for dimensional analysis of

a ball falling in a vacuum.
Elevation z is a function of time t,
initial vertical speed w0, initial
elevation z0, and gravitational
constant g.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Step 5

Dependent : 1  zw0 a1 z0b1

Dimensions of 1: 1   L t    zw0 0 0 a1

z0 b1
  L  L t 
1 1 1 a1
Lb1 
Time: t   t  0  a
0  a1
1 a1  0
Length: L   L L L  0  1  a  b
0 1 a1 b1
1 1 b1  1  a1 b1  1

z First independent :  2 =tw0 a2 z0b2

1 =
z0
Dimension of  2 :
Equating exponents,
 2   L t   tw0
0 0 a2
z0 b2
 
 t Lt 
1 1 a2
Lb2 
Time:     0  1 a
t 0  t1t  a2 2 a2  1 w0t
2 
Length: L   L L  0  a  b
0 a2 b2
2 2 b2   a2 b2  1 z0
Second independent :  3  gw0 a3 z0b3

Dimensions of  3 : 3   L t    gw0

0 0 a3
z0 b3
  L t  L t 
1 2 1 1 a3
Lb3 
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Equating exponents,
Time: t   t
0 2  a3
t  0  2  a3 a3  2
Length: L   L L L 
0 1 a3 b3
0  1  a3  b3 b3  1  a3 b3  1
1/2
gz0  gz0  w0
3 = Modified  3:  3, modified   2   Fr
w0 w 
0 gz0

The mathematical It is wise to choose The  groups that result from

rules for adding and common parameters as the method of repeating
subtracting repeating parameters variables are guaranteed to be
exponents during since they may appear in dimensionless because we force
multiplication and each of your the overall exponent of all seven
division, respectively. dimensionless  groups. primary dimensions to be zero.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Established
nondimensional
parameters are usually
named after a notable
scientist or engineer.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Step 6

z  w0t w0 
Relationship between 's: 1  f   2 ,  3    f , 
z0 z
 0 gz 0 

Final result of dimensional analysis: 

z  f t  , Fr 

The method of repeating

variables cannot predict
the exact mathematical
form of the equation.

A quick check
of your algebra
is always wise.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Oftentimes when
performing the method of
repeating variables, the
most difficult part of the
procedure is choosing the
repeating parameters.
With practice, however,
you will learn to choose
these parameters wisely.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 A parameter that is dimensionless (like
an angle) is already a nondimensional
 all by itself—we know this  without
doing any further algebra.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Although the Darcy friction factor for
pipe flows is most common, you should
be aware of an alternative, less
common friction factor called the
Fanning friction factor. The
relationship between the two is f = 4Cf .
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 To verify the validity of Eq. 1 of Example 7–9, we use computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) to predict the velocity profiles and the values of wall shear
stress for two physically different but dynamically similar pipe flows:
Air at 300 K flowing at an average speed of 14.5 ft/s through a pipe of inner
diameter 1.00 ft and average roughness height 0.0010 ft.
Water at 300 K flowing at an average speed of 3.09 m/s through a pipe of
inner diameter 0.0300 m and average roughness height 0.030 mm.
The two pipes are clearly geometrically similar since they are both round
pipes.
They have the same average roughness ratio (/D = 0.0010 in both cases).
We have carefully chosen the values of average speed and diameter such that
the two flows are also dynamically similar.

airVair Dair 1.225 kg/m  14.5 ft/s1.00 ft   0.3048 m 

3 2

Re air      9.22  10 4

air 1.789  105 kg/m  s ft

Re water 
 waterVwater Dwater

 998.2 kg/m   3.09 m/s  0.0300 m 
3

 9.22 10 4

water 0.001003 kg/m  s

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Normalized axial velocity
profiles for fully developed
flow through a pipe as
predicted by CFD; profiles
of air (circles) and water
(crosses) are shown on the
same plot.

Comparison of wall shear stress and nondimensionalized wall shear stress for
fully developed flow through an air pipe and a water pipe as predicted by CFD*
Parameter Air Flow Water Flow
Wall shear stress w, air
2
w, water
2

Dimensionless wall w, air w, water

shear stress air 2
air air
water 2
water water
(Darcy friction factor)
* Data obtained with ANSYS-FLUENT using the standard k-𝜀 turbulence model with wall functions.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 7–5 ■ EXPERIMENTAL TESTING, MODELING,
AND INCOMPLETE SIMILARITY
One of the most useful applications of dimensional analysis is in designing
physical and/or numerical experiments, and in reporting the results of such
experiments.
In this section we discuss both of these applications, and point out situations in
which complete dynamic similarity is not achievable.

Setup of an Experiment and Correlation of

Experimental Data
Consider a problem in which there are five original parameters (one of which is
the dependent parameter).
A complete set of experiments (called a full factorial test matrix) is conducted.
This testing would require 54 = 625 experiments.
Assuming that three primary dimensions are represented in the problem, we can
reduce the number of parameters from five to two (k = 5  3 = 2 nondimensional
groups), and the number of independent parameters from four to one.
Thus, for the same resolution we would then need to conduct a total of only 51 = 5
experiments.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 For a two- problem, we plot
dependent dimensionless parameter
(1) as a function of independent
dimensionless parameter (2). The
resulting plot can be (a) linear or (b)
nonlinear. In either case, regression
and curve-fitting techniques are
available to determine the relationship
between the ’s.

If there are more than two ’s in

the problem (e.g., a three- 
problem or a four-  problem), we
need to set up a test matrix to
determine the relationship
between the dependent  and the
independent ’s. In many cases
we discover that one or more of
the dependent ’s has negligible
effect and can be removed from
the list of necessary dimensionless
parameters.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Incomplete Similarity

We have shown several examples in which the nondimensional

groups are easily obtained with paper and pencil through
straightforward use of the method of repeating variables.
In fact, after sufficient practice, you should be able to obtain the ’s
with ease—sometimes in your head or on the “back of an envelope.”
Unfortunately, it is often a much different story when we go to
apply the results of our dimensional analysis to experimental
data.
The problem is that it is not always possible to match all the ’s of a
model to the corresponding ’s of the prototype, even if we are careful
to achieve geometric similarity.
This situation is called incomplete similarity.
Fortunately, in some cases of incomplete similarity, we are still able to
extrapolate model test data to obtain reasonable full-scale predictions.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Wind Tunnel Testing
We illustrate incomplete similarity with
the problem of measuring the
aerodynamic drag force on a model
truck in a wind tunnel.
One-sixteenth scale.
The model is geometrically similar to
the prototype.
The model truck is 0.991 m long.
Wind tunnel has a maximum speed of
70 m/s.
The wind tunnel test section is 1.0 m
Measurement of aerodynamic drag on tall and 1.2 m wide.
a model truck in a wind tunnel
equipped with a drag balance and a mVm Lm  pV p L p
Re m   Re p 
moving belt ground plane. m p

 m    p  L p   16 
      L  
Vm  V p   26.8 m/s 11    429 m/s
 p   m  m  1
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 To match the Reynolds number between model and prototype, the wind
tunnel should be run at 429 m/s. This is impossible in this wind tunnel.
What do we do? There are several options:
(1) Use a bigger wind tunnel. Automobile manufacturers typically test
with three-eighths scale model cars and with one-eighth scale model
trucks and buses in very large wind tunnels.
(2) We could use a different fluid for the model tests. For example,
water can achieve higher Re numbers, but more expensive.
(3) We could pressurize the wind tunnel and/or adjust the air
temperature to increase the maximum Reynolds number capability.
(4) If all else fails, we could run the wind tunnel at several speeds near
the maximum speed, and then extrapolate our results to the full-scale
Reynolds number.
Fortunately, it turns out that for many wind tunnel tests the last
option is quite viable.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 (a) NASA/Ames/Dominic Hart (b) NASA/Eric James

(a) The Langley full-scale wind

tunnel (LFST) is large enough
that full-scale vehicles can be
tested. (b) For the same scale
model and speed, water tunnels
achieve higher Reynolds
numbers than wind tunnels.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 For many objects, the drag coefficient
levels off at Reynolds numbers above
some threshold value. This fortunate
situation is called Reynolds number
independence. It enables us to
extrapolate to prototype Reynolds
numbers that are outside of the range
of our experimental facility.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Flows with Free Surfaces
For the case of model testing of flows with free surfaces (boats and ships,
floods, river flows, aqueducts, hydroelectric dam spillways, interaction of
waves with piers, soil erosion, etc.), complications arise that preclude
complete similarity between model and prototype.
For example, if a model river is built to study flooding, the model is often
several hundred times smaller than the prototype due to limited lab space.
Researchers often use a distorted model in which the vertical scale of
the model (e.g., river depth) is exaggerated in comparison to the horizontal
scale of the model (e.g., river width).
In addition, the model riverbed slope is often made proportionally steeper
than that of the prototype.
These modifications result in incomplete similarity due to lack of geometric
similarity.
Model tests are still useful under these circumstances, but other tricks (like
deliberately roughening the model surfaces) and empirical corrections and
correlations are required to properly scale up the model data.

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 Vp Lp Vm Lm
Re p   Re m 
Vp Vm
Vp Vm
Frp   Frm 
gLp gLm
2
Lm vm V p  Vm 
  
L p v p Vm  V p 

Required ratio of kinematic

viscosities to match both Re and Fr:
3/2
vm  Lm 
 
In many flows involving a liquid with a free v p  Lp 
surface, both the Reynolds number and
Froude number are relevant nondimensional To ensure complete similarity we
parameters. Since it is not always possible would need to use a liquid
to match both Re and Fr between model and whose kinematic viscosity
prototype, we are sometimes forced to settle satisfies this equation.
for incomplete similarity.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Photo courtesy of IIHR-Hydroscience & Engineering, University
of Iowa. Used by permission.

A NACA 0024 airfoil being

tested in a towing tank at Fr
(a) 0.19, (b) 0.37, and (c) 0.55.
In tests like this, the Froude
number is the most important
nondimensional parameter.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 US Army Engineer Research and Development Center
Photo courtesy of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,

(USACE-ERDC), Nashville.
A 1:100 scale model constructed to investigate navigation conditions in the lower lock
approach for a distance of 2 mi downstream of the dam. The model includes a scaled
version of the spillway, powerhouse, and existing lock. In addition to navigation, the model
was used to evaluate environmental issues associated with the new lock and required
railroad and highway bridge relocations. The view here is looking upstream toward the
lock and dam. At this scale, 52.8 ft on the model represents 1 mi on the prototype. A (real,
full-scale) pickup truck in the background gives you a feel for the model scale.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 In many experiments involving free surfaces, we
cannot match both the Froude number and the
Reynolds number. However, we can often
extrapolate low Re model test data to predict high
Re prototype behavior.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 We mention the importance of similarity in the production of
Hollywood movies in which model boats, trains, airplanes,
buildings, monsters, etc., are blown up or burned.
Movie producers must pay attention to dynamic similarity in order to
make the small-scale fires and explosions appear as realistic as
possible.
You may recall some low-budget movies where the special effects
are unconvincing.
In most cases this is due to lack of dynamic similarity between the
small model and the full-scale prototype.
If the model’s Froude number and/or Reynolds number differ too
much from those of the prototype, the special effects don’t look
right, even to the untrained eye.
The next time you watch a movie, be on the alert for
incomplete similarity!

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Summary
• Dimensions and units
• Dimensional homegeneity
• Nondimensionalization of Equations
• Vapor Pressure and Cavitation
• Dimensional analysis and similarity
• The method of repeating variables and the Buckingham pi theorem
• Experimental testing, modeling and, incomplete similarity
• Setup of an Experiment and Correlation of Experimental Data
• Incomplete Similarity
• Wind Tunnel Testing
• Flows with Free Surfaces

©McGraw-Hill Education.