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Public Roads - July/August 2010

Date: July/August 2010
Issue No: Vol. 74 No. 1
Publication Number: FHWA-HRT-10-005

Table of Contents

Hazard Mitigation R&D Series: Article 2—Scour, Flooding, and Inundation

by Kornel Kerenyi and Junke Guo
The FHWA hydraulics R&D program conducts advanced and applied research to mitigate disaster risks by addressing three of the main hazards.

FHWA's J. Sterling Jones Hydraulics Laboratory includes

several testing flumes to conduct flooding-related research
studies, including a tilting flume (on the far right), a force
balance flume (next to the tilting flume), and a tilting fish
passage culvert flume (center). Two other flumes are
perpendicular to those flumes.

In recent history, flooding, coastal inundation, and scour of bridge piers and abutments have been among the leading causes of bridge failures in
the United States. Recent examples of structures affected by flooding, inundation, or scour include the numerous bridges in New Orleans and
along the Gulf Coast damaged by Hurricanes Katrina (2005) and Rita (2005), the damage to more than 2,400 bridge crossings during the 1993
Upper Mississippi River basin flooding, the 1994 failure of numerous bridges during Tropical Storm Alberto in central and southwest Georgia, and
the 1987 failure of the I-90 bridge over the Schoharie Creek near Amsterdam, NY, which resulted in the loss of 10 lives and millions of dollars in
bridge repair and replacement costs.

Given national costs due to scour-related damage, plus disruption to local economic activities from bridge closures, and the potential for
devastating loss of life from floods and inundation, bridge foundations demand improved engineering analysis and design procedures to mitigate
the consequences of natural disasters.

Researchers with the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), under the Hydraulics Research program at the J. Sterling Jones Hydraulics
Laboratory located at FHWA's Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center (TFHRC), and their partners currently are conducting applied and
exploratory advanced research to improve prediction of flooding-related damages and design guidance for mitigating impacts on bridges and
other hydraulic structures.

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Further, FHWA is collaborating with several laboratories and universities to help assure the program's success. For example, research partners at
the Argonne National Laboratory's (ANL) Transportation Research and Analysis Computing Center (TRACC) in West Chicago, IL, and the
Universities of Nebraska and Iowa are championing advanced engineering tools such as computational fluid dynamics to simulate extreme flood
events and their interaction with bridge structures. Computational fluid dynamics uses numerical methods and algorithms to analyze and solve
problems that involve fluid flows.

Past Research Contributions

The TFHRC hydraulics laboratory has been involved in a number of studies, including investigation of the Hatchie River Bridge collapse in
Tennessee. Spans of the northbound U.S. Route 51 bridge over the Hatchie River collapsed on April 1, 1989. Five vehicles went into the river, and
eight people were killed. To help determine the cause of the collapse, the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) asked FHWA to conduct
hydraulic model studies of the two-column bent #70 with independent footings of the Hatchie River Bridge. Onsite investigation had established
that failure of this bent probably triggered the collapse. The hydraulics laboratory tested a 1:20 scale model of the bent to determine how the
maximum local pier scour might have occurred after the channel migrated to bent #70 and to obtain videotape shots of the local scour process
for use as a visual aid in the NTSB public hearing conducted to gather evidence concerning the collapse.

Hydraulics Laboratory Facts

The J. Sterling Jones Hydraulics Laboratory features multiple hydraulic flumes of varying functions and sizes. Most prominent of these flumes
is a 6-foot, ft (1.8-meter, m)-wide by 70-ft (21.3-m)-long tilting flume with a sediment recess for local scour modeling and a total pumping
capacity of 15 cubic feet per second (ft3/s), 425 liters per second (L/sec), with variable-frequency drives capable of simulating in-flow
hydrographs. Adjacent to the tilting flume is a 1.3-ft (0.4-m)-wide by 42-ft (12.8-m)-long force balance flume capable of measuring horizontal,
vertical, and rotational forces on an object, a shear stress sensor at the base of the flume, 12 ultrasonic depth sensors used to measure water
elevation at multiple locations along the tank, and a wave generator capable of inducing multiple wave patterns at varying heights and
intensities. The facility also includes several particle image velocimetry (PIV) testing stations capable of recording 2-dimensional (2-D), 3-
dimemsional (3-D), and 3-component (3-C) 3-D PIV data. The hydraulics laboratory also includes a 1.3-ft (0.4-m)-wide by 26.2-ft (8-m)-long
tilting fish passage culvert flume to test low-flow entrance loss coefficients and to evaluate roughness coefficients for low flows. In addition,
the lab contains an ex situ scour testing device to investigate hydraulic loading on cohesive soils samples. The soil samples are mounted on a
shear and normal force balance to measure the soil erosion response.

In another example of past research, the TFHRC laboratory conducted small-scale scour tests for the Woodrow Wilson Memorial Bridge
replacement. The researchers tested 31 different model scenarios in the tilting flume and conducted 71 test runs with durations of 46 hours each.
The scour evaluations were part of the process that led to design changes that saved millions of dollars. The savings resulted from reducing the
predicted scour depths by an average of 15 to 20 feet (4.5 to 6 meters) for approximately 648 of the piles, using fewer but larger piles, and
incorporating vertical piles instead of battered piles, which are more difficult and expensive to install, for the very deep foundations. Savings also
resulted from reductions in equipment costs and the time needed for construction. Engineers gained a greater understanding of how pier
protection systems for vessel impact, which are placed around the bridge's foundations to prevent collisions, affect the scouring process. After
the researchers found that the proposed position of the pier protection system would double the amount of scour, the design was changed.

Applied Hydraulics Research

When a bridge crossing over a waterway is partially or entirely submerged during a flood, the deck might be subjected to significant
hydrodynamic loading. In addition, the pressurized accelerated flow can create severe potential for scour because scouring the channel bed is
one of the only ways for a river to dissipate energy and reach equilibrium when it is carrying a given discharge under pressurized flow.

To address these issues, the hydraulics research and development (R&D) program at TFHRC conducted two studies in fiscal years (FY) 2008 and
2009—one on hydrodynamic forces and the other on pressure flow scour—using small-scale physical experiments and computational fluid
dynamics-based simulations.

The results of the first study are new charts for bridge designers to use when estimating hydrodynamic loading. The FHWA Hydraulic Design
Series 1 (HDS-1), Hydraulics of Bridge Waterways (FHWA-EPD-86-101), will be updated to incorporate the new charts. One of those design charts,
for example, compares experimental data with the simulation results for drag forces (drag coefficients), which act in a direction opposite to the
oncoming flow velocity.

The outcome of the second study will be included in the new edition of FHWA's Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 18 (HEC-18) Evaluating Scour at
Bridges (FHWA NHI 01-001). The upcoming edition will include a new design chart for estimating pressure flow scour as a function of the
inundation number. Over its lifespan, any given bridge will likely be inundated or submerged for a short period of time. The study analyzed the
impact (that is, the scour) on the riverbed if a bridge is submerged or inundated under pressurized flow. This pressure flow scour has to be
considered in the design of the bridge foundation and will affect the depth at which the footings are placed.

This study researched clear water scour, which is defined as scour of a riverbed when the water cannot transport sediment because the flow is
too slow and therefore not powerful enough to suspend particles long enough to carry them downstream—a rare situation in the field. Most
floods are sediment-laden flows where the water's capacity for sediment transport governs the amount of scour. During most storms, field flow
velocities and stream power are extremely high, so upstream sediment from the riverbed moves rapidly downstream toward any infrastructure.
This latter phenomenon is called live bed scour, as opposed to clear water scour. The TFHRC researchers analyzed clear water scour first to set a
baseline and will address live bed scour in the research's second phase.

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TRACC Computing Facility

The FHWA hydraulics laboratory's numerical modeling occurs at the Argonne National Laboratory's (ANL) Transportation Research and
Analysis Computing Center (TRACC). TRACC is studying computational fluid dynamics-based simulation techniques. Engineers compare these
simulations to tests conducted at the hydraulics laboratory.

The U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT) and ANL established TRACC as a general purpose advanced computing and visualization
facility available for use by the transportation community for a variety of applications. Staff from USDOT's Research and Innovative
Technology Administration and FHWA identified specific initial applications and technologies that should have highest priority for research
and development (R&D) and user support.

The TRACC components include high-performance computing, visualization, and networking systems. To take advantage of ANL's extensive
experience in the acquisition and operation of similar user facilities, the system components were installed in dedicated facilities at the
DuPage National Technology Park near the DuPage County Airport in Illinois. The TRACC computational cluster is a 512-core, customized
system that comprises 128 compute nodes, each with two dual-core central processing units (CPUs) and 4 gigabytes of random access
memory (RAM); a storage system consisting of 240 terabytes of shared redundant array of independent disks (RAID) storage that is
expandable to 750 terabytes; a high-bandwidth, low-latency network for internode computations; and a high-bandwidth management
network. The center also offers scientific visualization capabilities through the TRACC facilities at the same location. The scientific visualization
facilities meet the needs for visualization of multidimensional data via a high-performance graphics cluster linked with a 15-panel liquid crystal
display (LCD)-tiled display and a portal optimized for visual simulation and high-speed broadband connectivity.

This TRACC parallel computing system provides researchers with the visualization capabilities necessary for their experiments.

Four New Studies for 2010

The hydraulics R&D program's team plans four new research studies to be initiated at the TFHRC laboratory in FY10 and completed in subsequent
years.

The first study is a continuation of the FY08 and FY09 completed research on pressure flow scour, which addressed only clear water scour. The
proposed study will extend current pressure flow scour predictions into the live bed scour range, utilizing a new flume at TFHRC that allows high-
speed live bed scour tests.

This research also will study the influence of bridge piers on pressure flow. The current practice assumes a linear superimposition of general,
contraction, and local pier scour. The latter is caused by vortices formed at the base of piers due to the pileup of water on their upstream
surfaces and subsequent acceleration of flow. But these assumptions might not be applicable because of nonlinear interactions between local
pier scour and general scour under pressure flow conditions. Hence, this research will improve understanding of the nonlinear effects on local
pier scour under pressure flow conditions.

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Shown here is the hydraulics lab's tilting flume during a

pressure scour experiment in which a bridge deck is
mounted in about one-third of the flume's width. The yellow
carriage over the flume holds several devices to measure the
flow velocity, bed elevation, and other variables. The flow is
from the top right to the bottom left, and the eroded sands
are moving downstream from the test section.

The second study will address the initial erosion process of cohesive soils. Scour of cohesive soils is a complex phenomenon that is not well
understood. This study will apply various hydraulic loading conditions (flow velocities) to different cohesive soils and measure the erosion
responses. The hydraulic loading is performed using an ex situ scour testing device that produces what are known as Couette flow conditions,
using a moving belt in still water over riverbed cohesive soil samples. The gap between the samples and the belt is 0.59-inch (15-millimeters).
Couette flow conditions refer to the laminar flow of a viscous fluid in the space between two parallel layers, one of which is moving relative to the
other. The velocity distribution in the gap is approximately S-shaped. The riverbed cohesive soil samples are mounted on a force balance sensor
that can measure horizontal (shear) forces and vertical (normal) forces during erosion.

The third study will analyze the effect of pier scour and pressure flow scour on coarse bed material. If riverbed material has more large sand
particles than fine sand, pier scour will be reduced because large particles will withstand the hydraulic dislodging forces and therefore armor the
scour hole. If the particle distribution consists of more fine sand than large particles, pier scour will be greater. This research will study the
influence of sand particle distribution on bridge pier scour. The goal is to develop an improved scour reduction (adjustment) factor for coarse
sand particle distribution by revisiting and improving the methodology suggested in HEC-18, a methodology that is difficult to apply.

The research study will consist of laboratory experiments, field data, and computational fluid dynamics simulations to derive a new adjustment
factor. The influence of gradations of bed material, such as gravel, sand, and fine sediment, will be expressed in terms of an improved critical
velocity equation and a more accurate gradation coefficient of the bed material, enabling the designer to compute the scour adjustment factor to
obtain a more accurate overall scour estimate.

The fourth study for FY10 relates to analyzing the magnitude of buoyancy or uplift forces on culverts. Many culvert failures occur when a culvert is
submerged with air trapped inside. The resulting buoyancy or uplift forces can be of such magnitude that the whole culvert system is pushed
upwards and fails. This study will investigate culverts during subcritical flow (full flow conditions), with air trapped in the flow separation zone at
the culvert inlet. The researchers will mount culvert models on a carefully designed force balance system (an array of force sensors—load cells—
measuring the changes in forces) that will include tension coil springs with load cells supporting the culvert models. The researchers will use the
change in spring tension to estimate the uplift forces. Computational fluid dynamics modeling will augment the culvert buoyancy experiments by
converting the measured forces into uplift coefficients that the researchers then will use to develop design guidelines to be applied in the field.

This graph shows experimentally determined and computer-simulated

drag coefficients versus the inundation ratio for a six-girder bridge deck
model. The chart shows that the drag coefficient is constant for higher
inundation ratios.

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This graph shows the experimentally determined maximum scour depth

ratio versus the inundation number for a six-girder bridge deck and a
three-girder deck model using two different sediment size diameters.
The blue line represents the new pressure flow scour design equation
and shows a good fit to the measured data. The chart also shows that
the maximum scour ratio increases with higher inundation numbers.

Advanced Hydraulics Research Program

FHWA's Exploratory Advanced Research (EAR) Program focuses on long-term, high-risk research with a high payoff potential. The program
addresses underlying gaps faced by applied highway research programs, anticipates emerging issues with national implications, and reflects
broad transportation industry goals. (To learn more about the EAR Program, visit www.fhwa.dot.gov/advancedresearch/.)

In August 2007, FHWA convened an international hydraulics research forum, gathering researchers and other stakeholders to stimulate advanced
research in hydraulics and identify research priorities. The forum drew experts from universities, industry, and government transportation
agencies, who reported on a broad spectrum of ongoing investigations and specific research needs. Discussion centered around three major
areas of hydraulics research—coastal, inland, and environmental—and the need to establish communications, partnerships, and future
directions. Two topics warranted special attention: advanced modeling capabilities (physical, numerical, and supercomputing) and the
implications of climate change for the field.

According to Jorge E. Pagán-Ortiz, director of FHWA's Office of Infrastructure Research & Development, "The participants emphasized the
importance of collaboration to maximize scarce funding and data-sharing to accelerate the progress of research. They recommended that annual
or biennial hydraulics research forums be organized, a Web site be created for reporting and peer-reviewing hydraulics research, and a steering
committee, working groups, and collaborative relationships be formed for planning and conducting research."

Among the high-risk topics with long-term potential discussed at the forum, participants called for research into applications of "smart materials,"
such as in integrated scour-monitoring systems. They also recommended development of hydrodynamically efficient bridge pier and deck
systems, plus structures that can adapt optimally to flow conditions through the use of adaptive materials based on nanotechnology and
biomimetics, which is the study and emulation of nature's models, systems, processes, and elements to solve engineering problems.

Forum participants identified two areas of high-risk, high-payoff research for the near term: development of smart particles for monitoring
hydraulic hazards and scour countermeasures using advanced materials based on nanotechnology.

Two EAR-sponsored joint investigations are underway that address these study areas. Led by researchers at FHWA's hydraulics laboratory in
collaboration with experts from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the first of the two joint studies is
exploring new ways to measure and understand the complex flow fields and boundary pressure fields associated with bridge pier scour. This
project is pursuing an integrated, flexible, sensing system that can measure changes in shear stress and pressure when a scour hole forms. Such
a system would significantly aid small-scale experiments to address bridge scour problems by allowing the measurement of forces that occur
during the scouring process. Measurement of those forces is necessary for the development of advanced scour countermeasure materials, which
might have nanotechnology components.

The second joint project is working toward an advanced optical system to allow three-dimensional measurement of the entire instantaneous flow
field around bridge pier models. The high-resolution, volumetric particle image system will be able to capture and quantify complex, unsteady
flow fields in experimental bridge-scour research. Also led by the hydraulics laboratory, this joint study will enable hydraulic researchers to
develop more precise models for predicting scour. This study will allow visualization of the complex, three-dimensional flow field around bridge
piers during scouring. To predict the forces during the pier scouring process, the researchers will compare these flow fields with the
computational fluid dynamics simulations performed at ANL.

Following the first international hydraulics research forum's recommendation for development of intelligent piers, the EAR Program convened a
1-day market research meeting in June 2009 to explore the potential of wireless, smart particle sensor networks for hydraulics research and
monitoring. Such sensors would be capable of transmitting data on position, velocity, pressure, and other variables under a wide range of
environmental conditions.

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Five research laboratories presented their ideas at the market research meeting, and a government review panel developed recommendations
for moving forward. The panel consisted of experts from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, National Institute of Standards and Technology, U.S.
Geological Survey, U.S. Naval Academy, and Oak Ridge National Laboratory. The panel recommended that a problem statement and a
performance standard be developed as the basis for a full feasibility analysis. The panel members identified a number of challenges—concept
validation, data accuracy, cost-benefit considerations, reproducibility, scope of application, and potential environmental impacts—and suggested
that a research roadmap be developed as well. The panel also called for a followup meeting that would include a broader array of university and
industry researchers.

This definition sketch shows a cross section of a model six-girder bridge

deck tested during the TFHRC hydrodynamic forces and pressure flow
scour studies. The sketch defines the direction of the flow, the upstream
velocity profile, and the position of the maximum scour observed when
a bridge deck is submerged.

Future Efforts and Expected Outcome

The applied FHWA hydraulics R&D program and its state-of-the-art laboratory will continue to conduct a variety of experiments pertaining to the
characterization and potential impacts that flowing water can have on the performance of the Nation's surface transportation infrastructure. For
example, the laboratory will continue to solve stream stability problems, as the TFHRC researchers did in the Bottomless Culvert Scour Study
(FHWA-HRT-07-026), which improved an existing methodology for estimating scour in bottomless culverts and measures to reduce that scour. The
lab also will continue to develop design standards for bridges that might become submerged in high-flood-risk areas, as well as contributing to
design standards concerning scouring around bridge foundations and submerged decks. The laboratory also will continue to support
practitioners and engineers with design guidance and tools, as in Effects of Inlet Geometry on Hydraulic Performance of Box Culverts (FHWA-HRT-
06-138).

In addition, the advanced FHWA hydraulics R&D program will continue to work on promising, high-risk, high-payoff projects in transportation-
related hydraulics research, guided by the multiyear strategic plan formulated as the result of the first international hydraulics research forum.
The plan proposes to move away gradually from physical experiments and use more computational fluid dynamics modeling to develop design
guidance for bridge designers. Successful collaboration between ANL-TRACC and the FHWA hydraulics R&D program is the first step in that
direction.

This photo of the hydraulics lab's force balance flume shows

a rectangular system in the center that measures the
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horizontal, vertical, and rotational forces acting on a bridge

deck when it is partly or fully submerged during a large flood.
Beneath that measurement system is a shear stress sensor
on the flume bottom that measures the boundary shear
stress. To the right is a wave simulator that can generate
waves with varied heights and intensities.

Pagán-Ortiz predicts, "Future research will also lead to progress in many areas: development of rapid deployment smart sensing systems to
capture hydraulic parameters during storm events, development of enhanced analytical and modeling capabilities [high-performance computing]
for predicting hydraulic hazard effects and for assessing and screening stream stability and scour countermeasures, development of enhanced
scour analysis capabilities and countermeasures for inland and coastal bridges, environmentally advanced hydraulic designs and designs that
facilitate fish and wildlife passage through hydraulic structures, and development of prefabricated hydrodynamic bridge decks and bridge piers.
Research also will focus on how climate change will potentially impact the hydrologic and hydraulic procedures used for designing new surface
transportation structures and evaluating the performance and condition of existing structures."

This schematic shows the lab's fish passage culvert tilting

flume with a central test section and a built-in black
corrugated aluminum culvert. This flume has the capability
to recirculate the water, which can be stored in a tank
underneath the flume. When the flume is running, the flow is
from the top left to the bottom right. A jack underneath the
inlet tank can lift the whole flume and, together with a hinge
underneath the outlet section, can generate a slope of 2.6
degrees.

Kornel Kerenyi is a hydraulic research program manager in the FHWA Office of Infrastructure R&D. He coordinates FHWA's hydraulic and
hydrology research activities with State and local agencies, academia, and various partners and customers, and he manages the hydraulics
laboratory. Kerenyi holds a doctorate in fluid mechanics and hydraulic steel structures from the Vienna University of Technology in Austria.

Junke Guo is an assistant professor in the department of civil engineering in the Peter Kiewit Institute at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. He
received his Ph.D. in fluid mechanics and hydraulics from Colorado State University. His research interests include turbulent boundary layer
flows, open-channel turbulence and sediment transport, computational fluid dynamics, and environmental fluid mechanics.

For more information, contact Kornel Kerenyi at 202-493-3142 or [email protected], or Junke Guo at 402-554-3873 or
[email protected].

References
Hydraulics of Bridge Waterways (HDS 1, March 1978), www.fhwa.dot.gov/engineering/hydraulics/pubs/hds1.pdf

Evaluating Scour at Bridges - Fourth Edition (HEC-18, May 2001), www.fhwa.dot.gov/engineering/hydraulics/library_arc.cfm?

pub_number=17&id=37

Hydrodynamic Forces on Inundated Bridge Decks (FHWA-HRT-09-028), May 2009,

www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/research/infrastructure/structures/09028/index.cfm

Bridge Pressure Flow Scour for Clear Water Conditions (FHWA-HRT-09-041), October 2009,
www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/research/infrastructure/structures/09041/index.cfm

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