CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Concrete Frame Structures

Concrete frame structures are a very common or perhaps, the most common-
type of modern building. As the name suggests, this type of building consists of a frame
or skeleton of concrete. Horizontal members of this frame are called beams, and vertical
members are called columns. Humans walk on flat planes of concrete called slabs. Of
these, the column is the most important, as it is the primary load-carrying element of
the building, if you damage a beam in a building, it will usually affect only one floor,
but damage to a column could bring down the entire building. When we say concrete
in the building trade, we actually mean reinforced concrete. Its full name is reinforced
cement concrete, or RCC. RCC is concrete that contains steel bars, called
reinforcement.
2.2. Reinforced Concrete:
Reinforced concrete is simply concrete in which steel bars with desirable
magnitude are introduced in the casting stage; the resulting composite material can
resist the stresses developed by the external loads. The revolutionary engineering
concept of reinforcing the weak tensile zone of the concrete with steel bars was
developed in the mid-19th century. The early 20th century witnessed significant
improvement in the development and use of reinforced concrete mainly due to the
production of a good quality concrete with improved strength and the improved quality
of steel with surface characteristics suitable to develop a good bond with the steel and
concrete.
2.3. Structural Elements
Each building structure consists of the following elements:
1. Slabs: horizontal plate elements carrying the loads.
2. Beams: horizontal members carrying the load from slabs.
3. Columns: vertical members carrying mainly axial loads (interior columns)
but sometimes they carry axial loads and moments in the case of exterior
beams.
4. Walls: vertical plate elements resisting vertical, lateral or in-plane loads.
5. Bases and foundations: directly supported by the soil, they help to distribute
the loads, transferred by the elements above, and on a larger area thus
reducing the stresses applied to the soil.
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2.4. Design Philosophy

The main objective of reinforced concrete structural design is to comply with
the following essential requirements.
1. Structures designed should satisfy the criteria of the desirable ultimate
strength in flexural, shear, compression, tension and torsion development
under a given loading conditions and their combinations.
2. The structure designed should satisfy the criterion for serviceability, which
limits the deflections and keeps the cracks width with acceptable limits.
3. The structure should also have adequate durability, impermeability,
resistance to acids, corrosion, frost, fire etc.
4. The building should have adequate stability against overturning, sliding,
buckling and vibration under the action of loads.
A satisfactory structural design should ensure the three basic criteria of strength,
serviceability and stability. A good designer should also take into account economy and
aesthetics.
2.5. Structural Framing System
The UBC-97 recognizes seven major types of structural systems capable of
resisting lateral forces. These structural systems are as follows;
1. Bearing wall system

2. Building frame system

3. Moment resisting frame system

4. Dual system

5. Cantilevered column building system

6. Shear wall frame interaction system

7. Undefined system
2.5.1. Moment-Resisting Frame System
A structural system with an essentially complete space frame providing support
for gravity loads. Moment-resisting frames provide resistance to lateral load primarily
by flexural action of members. Moment-resisting frame can be constructed of concrete,
masonry or steel. Rigid-frame are simple and convenient of their rectangular forms.
Moment-resisting frames for steel are as follows:
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1. Special moment-resisting frame (SMRF)

2. Intermediate moment-resisting frame (IMRF)

3. Ordinary moment-resisting frame (OMRF)

2.5.1.1. Special moment-resisting frame (SMRF)

A moment frame in which member and joint are capable of resisting forces by
flexure as well as along the axis of the members. SMRF is a moment-resisting forces
by flexure as well as along the axis of the members. SMRF is a moment-resisting frame
specially detailed to provide ductile behavior. SMRF is appropriate in high seismic risk
areas, especially in seismic zone III and IV.

2.5.1.2. Intermediate moment-resisting frame (IMRF)

A moment frame in which members and joints are capable of resisting forces
by flexure as well as the axis of the members. The intermediate moment resisting frame
is appropriate in moderate seismic risk areas, especially in seismic zone II. But
intermediate moment resisting frame is used in the proposed building.

2.5.1.3. Ordinary moment-resisting frame (OMRF)

A moment frame in which member and joint are capable of resisting forces by
flexure as well as along the axis of the members. Ordinary moment frame is a moment
resisting frame that don't meet special detailing requirements for ductile requirements
for ductile behavior. OMRF is appropriate in minimal seismic risk areas, especially in
seismic zone O and I.

2.6. Types of Loads

Loading on high-rise building differ from loading on low rise buildings mainly
in its accumulation over the height to cause very large gravity and lateral forces within
the structure. All building codes specify minimum design loads. The applied loads are
dead loads, superimposed dead loads, live loads, seismic loads and wind loads. Self-
weights of all elements put in are considered as dead loads. Floor finishing, ceiling,
partitions, earthquake and wind excitation are calculated according to UBC-97.
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2.6.1. Gravity Loads

All mass are attracted toward the center of the earth by the gravitational force.
Loads are defined as these attracting forces acting upon their corresponding masses.
There are two different gravity loads: (1) Dead loads and (2) Live loads.
2.6.1.1. Dead loads
Dead loads are loads of constant magnitude that remain in one position. They
consist of the structural frame's own weight and other loads that are permanently
attached to the frame. For a steel-frame building, the frame, walls, floors, roof, plumbing,
and fixtures are dead loads.
2.6.1.2. Live load
Live loads are loads that may change in position and magnitude. They are caused
when a structure is occupied, used, and maintained. Live loads that move under their own
power, such as trucks, people, and cranes, are said to be moving loads. Those loads that
may be moved are movable loads, such as furniture and warehouse materials.
2.6.2. Environmental Loads
Environmental loads are caused by the environment in which a particular structure
is located. For buildings, environmental loads consist of rain load, wind load and
earthquake load.
2.6.2.1. Wind load
The wind loading is an important factor that determines the design of buildings.
Every building or structure and every portion thereof shall be designed and constructed
to resist the effect. The force exerted by winds on building increase dramatically with
the increase in building heights. On any typical building of rectangular plan and
elevation, wind exert pressure on the windward side and suction on the leeward side,
as well as either uplift or downward pressure on the roof. The wind pressure on a
structure depends on the wind velocity, and height, exposure, and dynamic response of
the structure. The wind pressure is obtained by the formula;
P = Ce Cq qs Iw
where, P = design wind pressure
Ce = combined the effect of height, exposure and gust factor
coefficient
qs = wind stagnation pressure at a standard height of 33 ft
Cq = pressure coefficient for the structure or portion of structure under
consideration
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Iw = important factor

2.6.2.2. Earthquake load

Many areas of the world fall in "earthquake territory," and in those areas it is
necessary to consider seismic forces in design for all types of structures. An earthquake
consists of horizontal and vertical ground motions, with the vertical motion usually
having the much smaller magnitude. Because the horizontal motion of the ground
causes the most significant effect, it is that effect which is often thought of as earthquake
load. When the ground under an object (structure) having mass suddenly move, the
inertia of the mass tends to resist the movement.
2.7. Other Loads
Engineers must also be aware of other actions that may affect a structure, such
as:
1. Foundation settlement or displacement
2. Fire
3. Corrosion
4. Explosion
5. Creep or shrinkage
6. Impact from vehicles or machinery vibration
7. Construction loads
2.8. Load Combinations
A load combination results when more than one load type acts on the structure.
Building codes usually specify a variety of load combinations together with load factors
(weightings) for each load type in order to ensure the safety of the structure under
different maximum expected loading scenarios. For example, in designing a staircase,
a dead load factor may be 1.2 times the weight of the structure, and a live load factor
may be 1.6 times the maximum expected live load. These two "factored loads" are
combined (added) to determine the "required strength" of the staircase. The reason for
the disparity between factors for dead load and live load, and thus the reason the loads
are initially categorized as dead or live is because while it is not unreasonable to expect
a large number of people ascending the staircase at once, it is less likely that the
structure will experience much change in its permanent load.
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1. 14 ( D + F
2. ( D+ F + T ) + 1.6 ( L + H ) + 0.5 ( Lr or R )
3. 1.2 D + 1.6 ( Lr or R )+ ( L or 0.8W )
4. 1.2 D + 1.6 W + L + 0.5 ( Lr or R )
5. 1.2 D + 1.0 E + L
6. 0.9 D + 1.6 W + 1.6 H
7. 0.9 D + 1.0 E + 1.6 H

2.9. Importance of Hand Calculations:

The students have been asked to perform hand calculations. Computer analysis
and design programs offer great benefits to the design engineer. However, the computer
programs can be easily misused without proper precautions in analysis and design
procedures. If the design of any structure is based on the results obtained from
erroneous computer analysis, it can lead to structural failures, costly disputes and poor
performing structures. Performing the following procedures can eliminate many of the
errors.
1. Model the structure as closely to the real structure as possible.
2. Recognize the important structural reactions
3. Check the input and understand the material behavior and boundary
conditions
4. Perform simple equilibrium and compatibility checks using hand
calculations.
5. Know and understand the limitations of the software.
A series of hand design calculations were performed on a typical slab panel, a
randomly selected set of three beams and columns, one critical footing supporting the
highest column load in the structure, and a typical combined footing. The purpose of
the hand design calculation was to verify manually, the analysis from the finite element
software ETABS.
2.10. Structural Stability
In this study, structural stabilities are considered according to UBC-97. There
are five kinds of stability consideration in the design which are overturning moment,
horizontal torsional moment, storey drift, sliding, and P-delta effect.
2.10.1. Overturning Moment
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The UBC-97 is required that every designed structure be capable of resisting

overturning effects induced by earthquake forces. At any level, the overturning moment
must be determined using the seismic forces (F t and Fx) that act on all of the levels
above the level under consideration. The overturning effects on every lateral-force-
resisting element must be carried down to the foundation. Overturning moment is
shown in Figure 2.1.
The incremental increases of the design overturning moment at each higher
level should be distributed to the various lateral-force-resisting elements. The
distribution should be in the same proportion as the distribution of the horizontal shears
to those resisting elements. The effects of uplift caused by seismic loads must also be
analyzed. Any net tension must be resisted by interaction with the soil (e.g, by use of
friction piles that resist uplift).
The regular structures, the top force, Ft, can be omitted in calculating the
overturning effects at the soil - foundation interface, including the calculation of soil
pressure under typical footings and the soil-pile frictional forces during uplift. This
omission is permitted because the Ft force represents higher mode forces, and the
moments at the base associated with the higher modes are unlikely to occur
simultaneously with mode 1 response.
Fx Ft

hn
OTM

OTM = f x h x + f t h n
v

Figure 2.1. Overturning Moment [UBC-97]

2.10.2. Horizontal Torsional Moment

When the center of mass (CM) does not coincide with the center of rigidity (CR)
of the vertical resisting elements in a storey, a torsional moment is induced. Torsional
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moment is shown in Figure 2.2. For nonflexible diaphragms, it is required that a certain
amount of accidental torsion.
The term ''design eccentrically '' is used to represent the algebraic sum of the
actual and accidental (5%) eccentricities (e x + ea).
The accidental torsion may have to be increased above the 5% level for torsional
irregular structures by use of an amplification factor (Ax).
max 2
Ax = ( )  3.0 (2.1)
1.2avg

max is the maximum displacement at level x, and avg is the average of the

displacements at the extreme points of the structure at level x.

ex

seismic loading
CR• CM
•
ea
e
L a

ea = ±5%L

Figure 2.2. Torsional Moment [UBC-97]

2.10.3. Storey Drift
Storey drift is the lateral displacement of one level of a structure relative to the
level above or below. Storey drift is shown in Figure 2.3. Storey drift requirements are
based on the strength design method, in UBC-97, to conform with newly developed
seismic base shear forces. In that regard, complete inelastic response drifts rather than
force level drifts are used. Storey drifts should be determined using the maximum
inelastic response displacements,  M which is defined as the maximum total storey drift
or total drift caused by the design-level earthquake. Displacement includes both elastic
and inelastic contributions to the total deformation. The maximum inelastic response
displacements,  M should be computed by

 M = 0.7 R S (2.2)

Where, R = Response modification factor

ΔM = Maximum storey drift
ΔS = Storey drift
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Figure 2.3. Storey Drift [UBC–97]

2.10.4. P-Delta Effect

The P-Δ or P-Delta effect refers to the abrupt changes in ground shear,
overturning moment, and the axial force distribution at the base of a sufficiently tall
structure or structural component when it is subjected to a critical lateral displacement.
The P-Delta effect is a destabilizing moment equal to the force of gravity multiplied by
the horizontal displacement a structure undergoes as a result of a lateral displacement.
To illustrate the effect, take the example of a typical statics case: in a perfectly rigid
body subjected only to small displacements, the effect of a gravitational or concentrated
vertical load at the top of the structure is usually neglected in the computation of ground
reactions. However, structurers in real life are flexible and can exhibit large lateral
displacements in unusual circumstances. The lateral displacements can be caused by
wind or seismically induced inertial forces. Given the side displacement, the vertical
loads present in the structure can adversely perturb the ground reactions. This is known
as the P-Δ effect.
In some sense, the P-Delta effect is similar to the buckling load of an elastic,
small-scale solid column given the boundary conditions of a free end on top and a
completely restrained end at the bottom, with the exception that there may exist an
invariant vertical load at the top of the column. A rod planted firmly into the ground,
given a constant cross-section, can only extend so far up before it buckles under its own
weights; in this case the lateral displacement for the solid is in infinitesimal quantity
governed by Euler buckling.
When horizontal loading acts on a building and causes it to drift, the resulting
eccentricity of the gravity loading from the axes of the walls and columns produces
additional external moment to which the structure responds by drifting further. The
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additional drift induces additional internal moments sufficient to equilibrate the gravity
load moments. This effect of the gravity loading P acting on the horizontal
displacements Δ is known as the P-Delta effect.
Most columns in practice are subjected to bending moment as well as axial
loads. These moments produce lateral deflection of a member between its ends and may
also result in relative lateral displacement of joints. They are secondary moments that
adds to the primary moments and that may become very large for slender column
leading to failure. The total moment consists of the moment that acts in the presence of
vertical load P and the additional moment caused by P, equal to P times the deflection.
So it is called P-Δ effect.
With the application of computer and design and because of the complexity of
the moment magnifier method, second order frame analysis or P-Δ analysis is
increasingly applied. In this analysis, effects of lateral deflection on moments and axial
forces are computed directly.
Check for P-  effect
The UBC-97 states that the P-  effect need not be considered in the analysis
of entire structure when
1. The ratio of the secondary moment to primary moment that is stability
coefficient in any storey is equal to or less than 0.1.
2. In seismic zone 3 and 4, the ratio of storey drift to storey height does not
exceed 0.02/R.
Px Sx
Δx = (2.3)
Vx h x
Where;
Δx = stability coefficient for storey x
Px = total vertical load (unfactored) on all columns in storey x
ΔSx = story drift due to design base shear
Vx = design shear in storey x
hx = height of storey x
2.10.5. Sliding
The resistance between two surfaces when attempting to slide one object across
the other is the friction. Sliding is a type of friction motion between two surfaces in
contact.
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2.11. Foundation
The foundation of any building structure is its base level. It keeps the moisture
and groundwater away from the structure and evenly distributes the structure's weight
to the ground. Foundations can be of various types with each type suitable for different
construction projects. If the foundation is not built right, the final structure will not be
sturdy, which in turn, can be dangerous to the occupants.

2.11.1. Types of Foundations in Construction

We are here to delve into the deep and diverse underworld of building
foundations and provide construction tips to help you plan and execute your projects
flawlessly. Foundations can be shallow or deep.

2.11.1.1. Shallow Foundations

Shallow foundations are placed closer to the ground surface and are suitable for
light to medium-weight structures. They include isolated spread footings, wall footings,
combined footings, cantilever or strap footings and raft or mat foundations. These house
foundation types can be further classified as follows:
Isolated Spread or Individual Footing
This type of foundation is economical and used widely. It is ideal for ordinary
buildings, typically up to five storeys high. Each column in a structure has its own
isolated footing that directly transfers the load to the underlying soil.

2.11.1.2. Wall Footings or Strip Footing

These foundations are longer and narrower compared to isolated spread
footings. They are commonly used to support load-bearing walls in buildings with
narrow column spacing.

2.11.1.3. Combined Footings

When two or more columns are closely situated, combined footings are
employed. These foundations create a continuous support system. They spread the load
between the columns and reduce the risk of differential settlement.
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2.11.1.4. Cantilever or Strap Footings

In situations where one part of the building is adjacent to another structure or
footing, these types of footings are used. They provide support to the load-bearing walls
while avoiding interference from nearby elements.

2.11.1.5. Raft or Mat Foundations

These foundations are utilised when the soil has poor bearing capacity or when
the superstructure load is distributed extensively throughout the entire footprint area.
Raft or mat foundations are designed to reduce uneven settlements and ensure stability.

2.11.1.6. Deep Foundations

Unlike shallow foundations, which are placed closer to the surface, deep
foundations are used when the depth from the ground surface to the underside of the
foundation exceeds five times the width of the foundation. They are suitable for heavy
structures or when the soil near the surface is not strong enough. Pile foundations, pier
foundations and caisson foundations are the primary types of deep foundations.

2.11.1.7. Pile Foundations

These foundations are made up of long, slender structural elements called piles.
Piles are driven deep into the ground to transfer the load of the structure to stronger,
more stable soil or rock layers.

2.11.1.8. Pier Foundations

Similar to pile foundations, pier foundations consist of cylindrical or rectangular
columns that are drilled or driven deep into the ground to bear the load of the structure.

2.11.1.9. Caisson Foundations

Caisson foundations are used when the load of the structure needs to be
transferred to lower layers of soil or rock. They are constructed by excavating a shaft,
placing a reinforcement cage, and filling it with concrete to form a watertight structure.
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Figure 2.4. Types of Foundation