SUBMITTED BY: DEEKSHA YADAV

ROLL NO : AD-915
STANDARD: B.S.C 1st YEAR
SUBJECT: NETWORK ANALOGY& ANALOG
ELECTONICS
SUBMITTED TO: V. BHASKER RAJ
1: TO FAMILARIZE WITH BASIC ELECTRONIC
EXPERIMENT COMPONENTS (R, C, L, Diodes,
Transistors), Digital Multimeter, Function
Generator and Oscilloscope.

. RESISTORS
3Resistors are the most commonly used of all electronic components, to the point where they are
almost taken for granted.There are many different resistor types available with their principal job being
to "resist" the flow of current through an electrical circuit, or to act as voltage droppers or voltage
dividers. When used in DC circuits the voltage drop produced is measured across their terminals as the
circuit current flows through them while in AC circuits the voltage and current are both in-phase
producing 0 o phase shift. Resistors produce a voltage drop across themselves when an electrical current
flows through them because they obey Ohm‘s Law, and different values of resistance produces different
values of current or voltage. There are many types of resistors and they are classified based on their
particular characteristics and accuracy suiting certain areas of application, such as High Stability, High
Voltage, High Current etc, or are used as general purpose resistors where their characteristics are less of
a problem. Some of the common characteristics associated with the humble resistor are; Temperature
Coefficient, Voltage Coefficient, Noise, Frequency Response, Power as well as Temperature Rating,
Physical Size and Reliability. The unit of resistance, R is ohm and denoted by the Greek symbol ‗Ω‘
(omega). The schematic symbol of R is shown below;
*CARBON RESISTORS

Carbon Composition Resistors are the cheap general purpose resistors. Their resistive element is
manufactured from a mixture of finely ground carbon dust or graphite (similar to pencil lead) and a
nonconducting ceramic (clay) powder to bind it all together. The ratio of carbon to ceramic determines
the overall resistive value of the mixture and the higher this ratio is the lower the resistance. The
mixture is then moulded into a cylindrical shape and metal wires or leads are attached to each end to
provide the electrical connection before being coated with an outer insulating material and colour
coded markings.

CarbonComposition Resistors are low to medium power resistors with low inductance which makes
them ideal for high frequency applications but they suffer from drawbacks like low stability, more
noisy& high temperature co-efficient.

Typical Specifications:

o Available Range : 1Ω to 10MΩ

Tolerance Range : ±5% to ±20%

oWattage Range : 0.125 W to 2 W

Operating temperature: -55°C to 100°C

DC working voltage : up to 350V

*Film Resistors
 The category of "Film Resistor" consist of Metal Film, Carbon Film and Metal Oxide Film resistor types,
which are generally made by depositing pure metals, such as nickel, or an oxide film, such as tin-oxide,
onto an insulating ceramic rod or substrate. The resistive value of the resistor is controlled by increasing
the desired thickness of the film and then by laser cutting a spiral helix groove type pattern into this film.
This has the effect of increasing the conductive or resistive path. This method of manufacturing allows
for much closer tolerance resistors (1% or less) as compared to the simpler carbon composition types.
Metal Film Resistors have much better temperature stability than their carbon equivalents, lower noise
and are generally better for high frequency or radio frequency applications. Metal Oxide Resistors have
better, high surge current capability with a much higher temperature rating than the equivalent metal
film resistors.

Another type of film resistor commonly known as a Thick Film Resistor is manufactured by depositing a
much thicker conductive paste of Ceramic and Metal, called Cermet, onto an alumina ceramic substrate.
Cermet resistors have similar properties of metal film resistors and are generally used for making small
surface mount chip type resistors, multi-resistor networks in one package for PCB's and high frequency
resistors. They have good temperature stability, low noise, and good voltage ratings but low surge
current properties.

Typical Specifications:

o Available Range : 10Ω to 10MΩ

o Tolerance Range : ±5%

o Wattage Range : 0.25 W to 5 W

o Operating temperature : -55°C to 125°C

o DC working voltage : up to 750V

*Wire-wound Resistors

Wire-wound Resistors are made by winding a thin metal alloy wire (Nichrome) or similar wire onto an
insulating ceramic former in the form of a spiral helix similar to the film resistors. These types of
resistors are generally only available in very low ohmic high precision values due to the gauge of the
wire and number of turns possible on the former making them ideal for use in measuring circuits and
Wheatstone bridge type applications. They are also able to handle much higher electrical currents than
other resistors of the same ohmic value with power ratings in excess of 300 Watts. These high power
resistors are moulded or pressed into an aluminium heat sink body with fins attached to increase their
overall surface area to promote heat loss. The drawback of this type of Electronics resistor is that they
are larger in size; cost‘s high and exhibits poor performance at high frequencies.

Typical Specifications:

o Available Range : 0.1Ω to 200KΩ

o Tolerance Range : ±5%

o Wattage Range : 3 W to 50 W

o Operating temperature: -55°C to 275°C

o DC working voltage : up to 500V

*Variable Resistors
They are usually used in electronic circuits to adjust values of currents & voltages. Potentiometers,
presets and rheostats are examples of variable resistors.

*Rheostat

These are usually used in high power applications. It is constructed by winding a former with a Nickel
Copper wire in oxidation form. Former is usually 15cm – 30cm long, round shaped, made of ceramic &
coated with vitreous enamel. A movable contact can be slided through an iron rod. Threading type
terminals are provided for external connections.
. CAPACITOR

A Capacitor is referred to as a condenser or a device one which stores energy in the form of an
electrostatic field which produces a potential across its plates. Basically a capacitor consists of two
parallel conductive plates that are not connected but are electrically separated either by air or by an
insulating material called the Dielectric. On applying a voltage to these plates, current flows charging up
the plates with electrons giving one plate a positive charge and the other plate an equal and opposite
negative charge. This flow of electrons to the plates is known as the charging current and continues to
flow until the voltage across the plates (and hence the capacitor) is equal to the applied voltage VC .The
parallel plate capacitor is the simplest form of capacitor and its capacitance value is fixed by the equal
area of the plates and the distance or separation between them. Altering any two of these values alters
the value of its capacitance and this forms the basis of operation of the variable capacitors. Unlike other
passive devices, there are several characteristics associated with a capacitor which are useful in
selecting a capacitor for application & categorizing capacitors.

Working Voltage
The Working Voltage is the maximum continuous voltage that can be applied to the capacitor without
failure during its working life. DC and AC values are usually not the same as the AC value refers to the
r.m.s. value. Common working DC voltages are 10V, 16V, 25V, 35V, 63V, 100V, 160V, 250V, 400V and
1000V and are printed onto the body of the capacitor.

Tolerance, (±%)
This specifies how much the capacitor‘s actual values are nearer to the rated capacitance with coloured
bands or letters. Capacitor‘s tolerance rating is expressed as a plus-or-minus value either in Picofarads
(±pF) for low value capacitors generally less than 10pF or as a percentage (±%) for higher value
capacitors generally higher than 10pF. The most common tolerance for capacitors is 5% or 10% but
some electrolytic capacitors are rated as high as 20%.

Leakage Current
The dielectric used inside the capacitor is not a perfect insulator resulting in a very small current flowing
or "leaking" through the dielectric when applied to a constant supply voltage. This small current flow in
the region of micro amps (μA) is called the LeakageCurrent. This leakage current is a result of electrons
physically making their way through the dielectric medium, around its edges or across the leads. The
"leakage current" of a capacitor is sometimes called the "insulation resistance" and can be found using
Ohm's law.

Temperature Coefficient
The Temperature Coefficient of a capacitor is the change in its capacitance with temperature expressed
linearly as parts per million per degree centigrade (PPM/°C), or as a percent change over a specified
temperature range.

Polarization
It refers to the electrolytic type capacitors regarding to their connection. The majority are polarized
types, that is the voltage connected to the capacitor terminals must have the correct polarity, i.e. +ve to
+ve and -ve to -ve. Incorrect polarization can cause the oxide layer inside the capacitor to break down
resulting in very large currents flowing through the device. The majority of electrolytic capacitors have
their -ve terminal clearly marked with a black stripe or black arrows down the side to prevent any
incorrect connection

Equivalent Series Resistance

The Equivalent Series Resistance is the AC impedance of the capacitor when used at high frequencies
and includes the resistance of the dielectric, plate and terminal leads. ESR acts like a resistor (less than
0.1Ω) in series with the capacitor and is frequency dependant.

. INDUCTORS

Inductor is another passive type electrical component designed to take advantage of this relationship (a
wound coil is to use this magnetic flux to oppose or resist any changes in electrical current flowing
through it) by producing a much stronger magnetic field than one that would be produced by a simple
coil. Inductors are formed with wire tightly wrapped around a solid central core which can be either a
straight cylindrical rod or a continuous loop or ring to concentrate their magnetic flux. The schematic
symbol for a inductor is that of a coil of wire so therefore, a coil of wire can also be called an Inductor.
Based on the type of core used they are categorized as air core inductor, iron core inductor, ferrite core
inductor & powder core inductors.Variable inductors, transformers are a few categories of inductors
that we commonly use.

Transformer

Its a device that works on the principle of mutual induction that is, it has 2 or more coils which are used
to transfer electrical energy from one circuit to another at different voltages without changing the
frequency. The most commonly used transformer is the power transformer. A power transformer is
used to step up / step down the supply voltage & current. In step up, the number of turns in primary
winding will be less than that in the secondary winding while in a step down transformer, the number of
turns in the secondary will be less than that of primary winding. So a step up transformer is used for
converting low voltage to high voltage and a step down transformer is used for converting a high voltage
to a low voltage. Transformers are selected & categorized based on certain specifications such as;

Voltage Rating
It specifies the primary and secondary voltage of the transformer. It depends on the turns ratio of the
windings and is usually expressed in Volts (V).

Current Rating
It specifies the maximum current that the transformer winding can pass through to the load without any
damage for the winding. It is expressed in Amperes (A).

Power Rating
It specifies the maximum amount of power that can be delivered by the transformer continuously. It is
usually expressed in Volts-Ampere (VA).

Frequency Range
It specifies the frequency range in which the transformer operates without any failure.
. SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES

The term semiconductor diode refers to a two electrodes/ terminal device. A semiconductor diode is a
one-way device, offering a low resistance when forward biased, and behaving almost as an open switch
when reverse biased. A normal pn-junction diode consists of a p-type & n-type semiconductors
sandwiched together. The p-side of the diode is always positive & is termed as anodewhile the n-side of
the diode is always negative and termed as cathode. The circuit diagram of the diode is an arrowhead
and bar where the arrowhead indicates the conventional direction of current flow under forward-biased
They are mainly manufactured of semiconductors such as Silicon & Germanium. In case of Si, it can be
seen that forward current(IF) remains very low until the forward voltage drop (VF) exceeds the barrier
potential (VF≈0.7V). At VF greater than 0.7V, IF increases almost linearly. In case of Ge, VF changes to
0.3V. Since, the reverse currents are very much smaller than the forward current; the reverse
characteristics are plotted on expanded current scales. For Si diode, IR is normally less than 100nA, and
its almost independent of the reverse-bias voltage. For Ge diodes it falls in the micro-ampere range.
Since, IR is the current due to minority charge carriers; it increases with increasing reverse-bias voltage.
Also, the reverse breakdown voltage of Ge diode is substantially lower than that of Si diodes.

Taking into account the lower forward voltage drop of Ge diode they has a distinct advantage but, the
lower reverse current and higher reverse breakdown voltage of Si diodes makes more preferable in
applications.

Some Important Diode Parameters

• Peak Reverse Voltage (VR /VRRM) - Max. reverse voltage that can be applied across the diode.

• Steady State Forward current (IO/IF) – Max. current that can be passed continuously through the
diode.

• Non-repetitive peak surge current (IFSM) – The maximum current that can be allowed to flow through
the diode when it is switched ON first.

• Repetitive current (IFRM) – Peak current that can be repeated over again & again during the forward
biased operation of a diode

• Static forward voltage drop (VF) – Max. forward voltage drop for a given forward current & device
temperature.
• Continuous power dissipation (PD) – The max. power that the device can safely dissipate to the
surrounding without the device getting damaged.

Signal Diodes

The Signal Diode is a small non-linear semiconductor devices generally used in electronic circuits, where
small currents or high frequencies are involved such as in radio, television and digital logic circuits or
where a low value of capacitance is required between the terminals of the device. Signal diodes which
are also sometimes known by their older name Point Contact or Glass Diode. They are physically very
small in size and control small currents. Generally, a signal diode is encapsulated in glass to protect it
and they generally have a red or black band at one end of their body to help identify which end is its
Cathode terminal.

In case of Ge signal diodes, they have a low reverse resistance value giving a lower forward volt drop
across the junction, typically only about 0.2-0.3v, but have a higher forward resistance value because of
their small junction area. While for Si signal diodes they have a very high value of reverse resistance and
give a forward volt drop of about 0.6- 0.7v across the junction. They have fairly low values of forward
resistance giving them high peak values of forward current and reverse voltage.The most widely used of
all the glass encapsulated signal diode is 1N4148 Sisignal diode &OA79 Ge signal diode.

Zener Diodes
Zener Diodes or "Breakdown Diodes" as they are sometimes called, are basically the same as the
standard junction diode but are specially made to have a low predetermined Reverse Breakdown
Voltage, called the "Zener Voltage" (VZ). In the forward direction it behaves just like a normal diode
passing current, but when the reverse voltage applied to it exceeds the selected reverse breakdown
voltage, reverse breakdown occurs in the diode & the current through the diode increases to the
maximum circuit value, which is usually limited by a series resistor. There are mainly two mechanisms
that results in this reverse breakdown in the reverse biased condition namely; Zener breakdown (on
applying a high intensity electric field across a narrow depletion region, the electrons break away from
their atoms thus converting the insulating depletion to conductor region that is, ionization by electric
field)and Avalanche breakdown (if the depletion region is too wide, then in the presence ofsufficient
reverse bias voltage the electrons in the reverse saturation current collides with the electrons in the
depletion region and thereby cause breakdown to occur that is, ionization by collision). Usually, zener
breakdown occurs at reverse bias less than 5V and avalanche breakdown occurs at reverse voltage level
above 5V.

. TRANSISTORS

A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is simply a sandwich of one type of semiconductor material (n/p type)
between two layers of the opposite type basically two configurations of BJT namely; npn & pnp
transistors. A small current at the central region terminal controls the much larger total current flow
through the device . Hence, a transistor can be used for current amplification & voltage amplification.
 From the above description, it is clear that a BJT is a three terminal device that is, (A) the centre layer is
known as base (B) and one of the outer layers is referred as emitter (E) and the other layer as collector
(C). BC107, BF195, BC148, SL100, SK100, 2N3055 are some of commonly used bipolar transistors.

. DIGITAL MULTIMETER

A Multimeter is an electronic instrument, every electronic technician and engineer’s widely used piece
of test equipment. A multimeter is mainly used to measure the three basic electrical characteristics of
voltage, current, and resistance. It can also be used to test continuity between two points in an electrical
circuit.

The multimeter has multi functionalities like, acts like ammeter, voltmeter, and ohmmeter . It is a
handheld device with positive and negative indicator needles over a numeric LCD digital display.
Multimeters can be used for testing batteries, household wiring, electric motors, and power supplies.
The function and operation of a multimeter are similar for both analog and digital types. This instrument
includes two leads or probes namely red and black & three ports. The black color lead is used to plug
into the common port, whereas the red color leads plug into other ports based on the requirement.

Once the leads are plugged in, the knob can be switched ON in the center of the instrument so that the
appropriate function can be done for the specific component test. For instance, once the knob is
situated to 20V DC, then the multimeter will notice DC voltage up to 20V. To calculate low voltages, then
set the knob in the multimeter to the 2V/200mV range.

To obtain a reading from the meter, you need to touch the end of each probe to the end of the
terminals of components. Types of multimeter devices are very safe to utilize on devices and circuits to
provide the current or voltage that does not go above the highest rating of the meter.

*Functions of Multimeters
These instruments are capable of different readings based on the model. So basic types of multimeter
are mainly used to measure amperage, resistance, voltage, checks continuity and a complete circuit can
be tested like the following.

• Resistance in Ohms
• Capacity in Farads
• The temperature in Fahrenheit/ Celsius
• AC Voltage & Amperage
• Inductance Henrys
• DC Voltage & Amperage
• Frequency in Hz
• Conductance in Siemens
• Decibels
• Duty Cycle

Types of Digital Multimeter

Digital types of multimeter are available in three types.

*Fluke Multimeter
The fluke digital multimeter can be designed with various collaboration functions. Generally, it includes a
large display and this instrument is used to measure the voltage as well as electrical resistance. Some
kinds of devices are available with advanced features to measure humidity, duty cycle, pressure,
frequency temperature, etc. The fluke multimeter is one of the most frequently and famous
instruments.
This kind of multimeter is mainly used for calibration efforts and used to calibrate currents, volts & other
electrical units.
The fluke multimeters are protected against the transient voltage. It is a small portable device used to
measure voltage, current, and test diodes. The multimeter has multi selectors to select the desired
function. The fluke MM automatically ranges to select most measurements. This means the magnitude
of the signal does not have to be known or determined to take an accurate reading, it directly moved to
the appropriate port for the desired measurement. The fuse is protected to prevent damage if
connected to the wrong port.

*Clamp Digital Multimeter

The clamp digital multimeter is used to measure the electricity flow. As the name suggests, this
multimeter includes the feature namely clamp which measures the amps whenever the probes measure
the volts. The adjustment of power utilization otherwise watts can be done through multiplying the
reading of voltage with the amps. This multimeter also includes an additional feature that is different
kinds of settings. The appropriate feature is used while measuring.

This kind of multimeter includes fixed tools for measuring the current flow. This device extremely
changes from the fluke type because, in the fluke multimeter, it utilizes a clamp to measure the flow of
current. So, this instrument is usually recommended for professionals only.

*Autoranging Multimeter
The auto-ranging multimeter is a simple multimeter to utilize even though it is similarly the most costly
of all kinds of digital multimeters. This multimeter includes a knob in the center and has less position. So
it doesn’t switch automatically to measure. This instrument is applicable in simple projects. For
beginners as well as electricians at home, this instrument is highly recommended. Generally, it measures
a single component at a time.

. Function generator

A function generator is usually a piece of electronic test equipment or software used to generate
different types of electrical waveforms over a wide range of frequencies. Some of the most common
waveforms produced by the function generator are the sine wave, square wave, triangular wave and
sawtooth shapes. These waveforms can be either repetitive or single-shot (which requires an internal or
external trigger source). Integrated circuits used to generate waveforms may also be described as
function generator ICs.
In addition to producing sine waves, function generators may typically produce other repetitive
waveforms including sawtooth and triangular waveforms, square waves, and pulses. Another feature
included on many function generators is the ability to add a DC offset.
Although function generators cover both audio and RF frequencies, they are usually not suitable for
applications that need low distortion or stable frequency signals. When those traits are required, other
signal generators would be more appropriate.
Some function generators can be phase-locked to an external signal source (which may be a frequency
reference) or another function generator.
Function generators are used in the development, test and repair of electronic equipment. For example,
they may be used as a signal source to test amplifiers or to introduce an error signal into a control loop.
Function generators are primarily used for working with analog circuits, related pulse generators are
primarily used for working with digital circuits.

. Oscilloscope

An oscilloscope, previously called an oscillograph, and informally known as a scope or o-scope, CRO
(for cathode-ray oscilloscope), or DSO is a type of electronic test instrument that graphically displays
varying signal voltages, usually as a calibrated two-dimensional plot of one or more signals as a
function of time. The displayed waveform can then be analyzed for properties such as amplitude,
frequency, rise time, time interval, distortion, and others. Originally, calculation of these values
required manually measuring the waveform against the scales built into the screen of the instrument.
Modern digital instruments may calculate and display these properties directly.
The oscilloscope can be adjusted so that repetitive signals can be observed as a persistent waveform on
the screen. A storage oscilloscope can capture a single event and display it continuously, so the user can
observe events that would otherwise appear too briefly to see directly.
Oscilloscopes are used in the sciences, medicine, engineering, automotive and the telecommunications
industry. General-purpose instruments are used for maintenance of electronic equipment and
laboratory work. Special-purpose oscilloscopes may be used to analyze an automotive ignition system or
to display the waveform of the heartbeat as an electrocardiogram, for instance.
Early oscilloscopes used cathode ray tubes (CRTs) as their display element (hence they were commonly
referred to as CROs) and linear amplifiers for signal processing. Storage oscilloscopes used special
storage CRTs to maintain a steady display of a single brief signal. CROs were later largely superseded by
digital storage oscilloscopes (DSOs) with thin panel displays, fast analog-to-digital converters and digital
signal processors. DSOs without integrated displays (sometimes known as digitisers) are available at
lower cost and use a general-purpose computer to process and display waveforms.

Features and uses

An analog oscilloscope is typically divided into four sections: the display, vertical controls, horizontal
controls and trigger controls. The display is usually a CRT with horizontal and vertical reference lines
called the graticule. CRT displays also have controls for focus, intensity, and beam finder.
The vertical section controls the amplitude of the displayed signal. This section has a volts-per division
selector knob, an AC/DC/Ground selector switch, and the vertical (primary) input for the instrument.
Additionally, this section is typically equipped with the vertical beam position knob.
The horizontal section controls the time base or "sweep" of the instrument. The primary control is the
Seconds-per-Division selector switch. Also included is a horizontal input for plotting dual X-Y axis signals.
The horizontal beam position knob is generally located in this section.
The trigger section controls the start event of the sweep. The trigger can be set to automatically restart
after each sweep, or can be configured to respond to an internal or external event. The principal
controls of this section are the source and coupling selector switches, and an external trigger input (EXT
Input) and level adjustment.