Computer Organization | BASICS

Historically there have been 2 types of Computers:

1. Fixed Program Computers – Their function is very specific and they couldn’t be
reprogrammed, e.g. Calculators.
2. Stored Program Computers – These can be programmed to carry out many different
tasks, applications are stored on them, hence the name.
Modern computers are based on a stored-program concept introduced by John Von Neumann. In
this stored-program concept, programs and data are stored in a separate storage unit called
memories and are treated the same. This novel idea meant that a computer built with this
architecture would be much easier to reprogram.
The basic structure is like this,

It is also known as ISA (Instruction set architecture) computer and is having three basic units:
1. The Central Processing Unit (CPU)
2. The Main Memory Unit
3. The Input/Output Device
Let’s consider them in detail.
 • Control Unit –
A control unit (CU) handles all processor control signals. It directs all input and output
flow, fetches code for instructions, and controls how data moves around the system.
• Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) –
The arithmetic logic unit is that part of the CPU that handles all the calculations the
CPU may need, e.g. Addition, Subtraction, Comparisons. It performs Logical
Operations, Bit Shifting Operations, and Arithmetic operations.

Figure – Basic CPU structure, illustrating ALU

• Main Memory Unit (Registers) –
1. Accumulator: Stores the results of calculations made by ALU.
2. Program Counter (PC): Keeps track of the memory location of the next
instructions to be dealt with. The PC then passes this next address to the
Memory Address Register (MAR).
3. Memory Address Register (MAR): It stores the memory locations of
instructions that need to be fetched from memory or stored in memory.
4. Memory Data Register (MDR): It stores instructions fetched from
memory or any data that is to be transferred to, and stored in, memory.
5. Current Instruction Register (CIR): It stores the most recently fetched
instructions while it is waiting to be coded and executed.
6. Instruction Buffer Register (IBR): The instruction that is not to be
executed immediately is placed in the instruction buffer register IBR.

• Input/Output Devices – Program or data is read into main memory from the input
device or secondary storage under the control of CPU input instruction. Output
devices are used to output information from a computer. If some results are evaluated
by the computer and it is stored in the computer, then with the help of output devices,
we can present them to the user.
 • Registers – Registers refer to high-speed storage areas in the CPU. The data processed
by the CPU are fetched from the registers. There are different types of registers used in
architecture.
MAR (Memory Address Register) – This register holds the memory
location of the data that needs to be accessed.
MDR (Memory Data Register) – This register holds the data that is being transferred
to or from memory.
AC (Accumulator) – This register holds the intermediate arithmetic and logic results.
PC (Program Counter) – This register contains the address of the next instruction to
be executed.
CIR (Current Instruction Register) – This register contains the current instruction
during processing.
• Buses – Data is transmitted from one part of a computer to another, connecting all
major internal components to the CPU and memory, by the means of Buses. Types:
1. Data Bus: It carries data among the memory unit, the I/O devices, and the
processor.
2. Address Bus: It carries the address of data (not the actual data) between
memory and processor.
3. Control Bus: It carries control commands from the CPU (and status signals
from other devices) in order to control and coordinate all the activities
within the computer.
Von Neumann bottleneck –
Whatever we do to enhance performance, we cannot get away from the fact that instructions can
only be done one at a time and can only be carried out sequentially. Both of these factors hold back
the competence of the CPU. This is commonly referred to as the ‘Von Neumann bottleneck’. We
can provide a Von Neumann processor with more cache, more RAM, or faster components but if
original gains are to be made in CPU performance then an influential inspection needs to take place
of CPU configuration.
This architecture is very important and is used in our PCs and even in Super Computers.
Harvard Architecture:
Harvard Architecture is the digital computer architecture whose design is based on the concept
where there are separate storage and separate buses (signal path) for instruction and data. It was
basically developed to overcome the bottleneck of Von Neumann Architecture.
Difference between Von Neumann and Harvard Architecture :
VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE HARVARD ARCHITECTURE

It is ancient computer architecture based on It is modern computer architecture based on

stored program computer concept. Harvard Mark I relay based model.

Same physical memory address is used for Separate physical memory address is used for
instructions and data. instructions and data.

There is common bus for data and instruction Separate buses are used for transferring data and
transfer. instruction.
 VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE HARVARD ARCHITECTURE

Two clock cycles are required to execute

single instruction. An instruction is executed in a single cycle.

It is cheaper in cost. It is costly than Von Neumann Architecture.

CPU can not access instructions and CPU can access instructions and read/write at
read/write at the same time. the same time.

It is used in personal computers and small It is used in micro controllers and signal
computers. processing.

TYPES OF COMPUTERS:

Digital computers can be categorized into four different types, based on the computers’ performance,
size and cost. They are: mainframe computers, minicomputers, microcomputers and supercomputers.

Mainframe computer It is a large computer system consisting of thousands of ICs, which is

physically
distributed in more than one place. This computer is designed for intensive computational tasks
and used by large organizations like banks, railways and hospitals. Mainframe computer is often
shared by multiple users connected to the computer through several terminals. This computer is very
expensive. Examples include IBM system/360, Burroughs B 5000 and UNIVAC 1100/2200 series.
Minicomputer This class of computers is smaller and slower version of mainframe computer. Thus,
its cost is very less compared to the mainframe computer. This machine is designed to serve multiple
users simultaneously and used by smaller organizations and research centres. Computers like DEC’s
PDP, HP 3000 series and CDC 1700 are minicomputers.
Microcomputer Invention of microprocessor (CPU on a chip) gives rise to the microcomputer that
is small, low-cost and single user machine. It is also called personal computer (PC). This inexpensive
computer is designed to use on a small desk or even to carry. This class of computers is very popular,
due to its high performance per cost ratio and size. The more powerful microcomputer designed to
perform scientific applications is called workstation. IBM PC series based on Intel’s 80x86 family,
Apple’s Macintosh and Motorola’s 680x0 family are examples of microcomputers.
Supercomputer This class of computers is the most powerful and expensive computer available
today. This computer is design to perform fast using multiprocessing and parallel processing
techniques.
This machine is specially used for complex scientific applications, like weather forecasting,
satellite launching, climate research and nuclear research. Popular supercomputers are Cray-1, Power-
PC and Fujitsu’s VP 200. An important point to be noted that today’s supercomputer tends to become
tomorrow’s normal computer.