Dr.

Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

104 Principles of Power System

large conductor size. For example, take the case of a single phase a.c. motor having an input
of 10 kW on full load, the terminal voltage being 250 V. At unity p.f., the input full load
current would be 10,000/250 = 40 A. At 0·8 p.f; the kVA input would be 10/0·8 = 12·5 and
the current input 12,500/250 = 50 A. If the motor is worked at a low power factor of 0·8, the
cross-sectional area of the supply cables and motor conductors would have to be based upon
a current of 50 A instead of 40 A which would be required at unity power factor.
2
(iii) Large copper losses. The large current at low power factor causes more I R losses in all the
elements of the supply system. This results in poor efficiency.
(iv) Poor voltage regulation. The large current at low lagging power factor causes greater
voltage drops in alternators, transformers, transmission lines and distributors. This results
in the decreased voltage available at the supply end, thus impairing the performance of
utilisation devices. In order to keep the receiving end voltage within permissible limits,
extra equipment (i.e., voltage regulators) is required.
(v) Reduced handling capacity of system. The lagging power factor reduces the handling
capacity of all the elements of the system. It is because the reactive component of current
prevents the full utilisation of installed capacity.
The above discussion leads to the conclusion that low power factor is an objectionable feature in
the supply system
6.4 Causes of Low Power Factor
Low power factor is undesirable from economic point of view. Normally, the power factor of the
whole load on the supply system in lower than 0·8. The following are the causes of low power factor:
(i) Most of the a.c. motors are of induction type (1φ and 3φ induction motors) which have low
lagging power factor. These motors work at a power factor which is extremely small on
light load (0·2 to 0·3) and rises to 0·8 or 0·9 at full load.
(ii) Arc lamps, electric discharge lamps and industrial heating furnaces operate at low lagging
power factor.
(iii) The load on the power system is varying ; being high during morning and evening and low at
other times. During low load period, supply voltage is increased which increases the
magnetisation current. This results in the decreased power factor.
6.5 Power FFactor
Po actor Improvement
Impro
The low power factor is mainly due to the fact that most of the power loads are inductive and, there-
fore, take lagging currents. In order to improve the power factor, some device taking leading power
should be connected in parallel with the load. One of such devices can be a capacitor. The capacitor
draws a leading current and partly or completely neutralises the lagging reactive component of load
current. This raises the power factor of the load.
 Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Power Factor Improvement 105

Illustration. To illustrate the power factor improvement by a capacitor, consider a single *phase
load taking lagging current I at a power factor cos φ1 as shown in Fig. 6.3.
The capacitor C is connected in parallel with the load. The capacitor draws current IC which
o
leads the supply voltage by 90 . The resulting line current I′ is the phasor sum of I and IC and its angle
of lag is φ2 as shown in the phasor diagram of Fig. 6.3. (iii). It is clear that φ2 is less than φ1, so that
cos φ2 is greater than cos φ1. Hence, the power factor of the load is improved. The following points
are worth noting :
(i) The circuit current I ′ after p.f. correction is less than the original circuit current I.
(ii) The active or wattful component remains the same before and after p.f. correction because
only the lagging reactive component is reduced by the capacitor.
∴ I cos φ1 = I ′ cos φ2
(iii) The lagging reactive component is reduced after p.f. improvement and is equal to the differ-
ence between lagging reactive component of load (I sin φ1) and capacitor current (IC) i.e.,
I ′ sin φ2 = I sin φ1 − IC
(iv) As I cos φ1 = I ′ cos φ2
∴ VI cos φ1 = VI ′ cos φ2 [Multiplying by V]
Therefore, active power (kW) remains unchanged due to power factor improvement.
(v) I ′ sin φ2 = I sin φ1 − IC
∴ VI ′ sin φ2 = VI sin φ1 − VIC [Multiplying by V]
i.e., Net kVAR after p.f. correction = Lagging kVAR before p.f. correction − leading kVAR of
equipment
6.6 Power FFactor
Po actor Improvement Equipment
Impro
Normally, the power factor of the whole load on a large generating station is in the region of 0·8 to
0·9. However, sometimes it is lower and in such cases it is generally desirable to take special steps to
improve the power factor. This can be achieved by the following equipment :
1. Static capacitors. 2. Synchronous condenser. 3. Phase advancers.

1. Static capacitor. The power factor can be improved by connecting capacitors in parallel
with the equipment operating at lagging power factor. The capacitor (generally known as static**
* The treatment can be used for 3-phase balanced loads e.g., 3-φ induction motor. In a balanced 3-φ load,
analysis of one phase leads to the desired results.
** To distinguish from the so called synchronous condenser which is a synchrnous motor running at no load
and taking leading current.
 Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

106 Principles of Power System

capacitor) draws a leading current and partly or completely neutralises the lagging reactive compo-
nent of load current. This raises the power factor of the load. For three-phase loads, the capacitors
can be connected in delta or star as shown in Fig. 6.4. Static capacitors are invariably used for power
factor improvement in factories.
Advantages
(i) They have low losses.
(ii) They require little maintenance as there are no rotating parts.
(iii) They can be easily installed as they are light and require no foundation.
(iv) They can work under ordinary atmospheric conditions.
Disadvantages
(i) They have short service life ranging from 8 to 10 years.
(ii) They are easily damaged if the voltage exceeds the rated value.
(iii) Once the capacitors are damaged, their repair is uneconomical.
2. Synchronous condenser. A synchronous motor takes a leading current when over-excited
and, therefore, behaves as a capacitor. An over-excited synchronous motor running on no load is
known as synchronous condenser. When such a machine is connected in parallel with the supply, it
takes a leading current which partly neutralises the lagging reactive component of the load. Thus the
power factor is improved.
Fig 6.5 shows the power factor improvement by synchronous condenser method. The 3φ load takes
current IL at low lagging power factor cos φL. The synchronous condenser takes a current Im which
leads the voltage by an angle φm*. The resultant current I is the phasor sum of Im and IL and lags
behind the voltage by an angle φ. It is clear that φ is less than φL so that cos φ is greater than cos φL.
Thus the power factor is increased from cos φL to cos φ. Synchronous condensers are generally used
at major bulk supply substations for power factor improvement.

Advantages
(i) By varying the field excitation, the magnitude of current drawn by the motor can be changed
by any amount. This helps in achieving stepless † control of power factor.

If the motor is ideal i.e., there are no losses, then φm = 90 . However, in actual practice, losses do occur in
o
*
o
the motor even at no load. Therefore, the currents Im leads the voltage by an angle less than 90 .
† The p.f. improvement with capacitors can only be done in steps by switching on the capacitors in various
groupings. However, with synchronous motor, any amount of capacitive reactance can be provided by
changing the field excitation.
 Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Power Factor Improvement 107

(ii) The motor windings have high thermal stability to short circuit currents.
(iii) The faults can be removed easily.
Disadvantages
(i) There are considerable losses in the motor.
(ii) The maintenance cost is high.
(iii) It produces noise.
(iv) Except in sizes above 500 kVA, the cost is greater than that of static capacitors of the same
rating.
(v) As a synchronous motor has no self-starting torque, therefore, an auxiliary equipment has to
be provided for this purpose.
Note. The reactive power taken by a synchronous motor depends upon two factors, the d.c. field excitation
and the mechanical load delivered by the motor. Maximum leading power is taken by a synchronous motor with
maximum excitation and zero load.

Synchronous Condenser

3. Phase advancers. Phase advancers are used to

improve the power factor of induction motors. The low
power factor of an induction motor is due to the fact that
its stator winding draws exciting current which lags be-
o
hind the supply voltage by 90 . If the exciting ampere
turns can be provided from some other a.c. source, then
Static Capacitor
the stator winding will be relieved of exciting current and
the power factor of the motor can be improved. This job
is accomplished by the phase advancer which is simply an a.c. exciter. The phase advancer is mounted
on the same shaft as the main motor and is connected in the rotor circuit of the motor. It provides
exciting ampere turns to the rotor circuit at slip frequency. By providing more ampere turns than
required, the induction motor can be made to operate on leading power factor like an over-excited
synchronous motor.
Phase advancers have two principal advantages. Firstly, as the exciting ampere turns are sup-
plied at slip frequency, therefore, lagging kVAR drawn by the motor are considerably reduced. Sec-
ondly, phase advancer can be conveniently used where the use of synchronous motors is unadmissible.
However, the major disadvantage of phase advancers is that they are not economical for motors
below 200 H.P.
 Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

108 Principles of Power System

6.7 Calcula tions of P
Calculations ower FFactor
Po actor Correction
Correction
Consider an inductive load taking a lagging current I at a power factor cos φ1. In order to improve the
power factor of this circuit, the remedy is to connect such an equipment in parallel with the load
which takes a leading reactive component and partly cancels the lagging reactive component of the
load. Fig. 6.6 (i) shows a capacitor connected across the load. The capacitor takes a current IC which
o
leads the supply voltage V by 90 . The current IC partly cancels the lagging reactive component of
the load current as shown in the phasor diagram in Fig. 6.6 (ii). The resultant circuit current becomes
I′ and its angle of lag is φ2. It is clear that φ2 is less than φ1so that new p.f. cos φ2 is more than the
previous p.f. cos φ1.

From the phasor diagram, it is clear that after p.f. correction, the lagging reactive component of
the load is reduced to I′sin φ2.
Obviously, I′ sin φ2 = I sin φ1 − IC
or IC = I sin φ1 − I′ sin φ2
∴ Capacitance of capacitor to improve p.f. from cos φ1 to cos φ2

=
IC FG
∵ XC = V = 1
IJ
ωV H IC ω C K
Power triangle. The power factor correction can also be illustrated from power triangle. Thus
referring to Fig. 6.7, the power triangle OAB is for the power factor cos φ1, whereas power triangle
OAC is for the improved power factor cos φ2. It may be seen that
active power (OA) does not change with power factor improve-
ment. However, the lagging kVAR of the load is reduced by the
p.f. correction equipment, thus improving the p.f. to cos φ2.
Leading kVAR supplied by p.f. correction equipment
= BC = AB − AC
= kVAR1 − kVAR2
= OA (tan φ1 − tan φ2)
= kW (tan φ1 − tan φ2)
Knowing the leading kVAR supplied by the p.f. correction equipment, the desired results can be
obtained.
Example 6.1 An alternator is supplying a load of 300 kW at a p.f. of 0·6 lagging. If the power
factor is raised to unity, how many more kilowatts can alternator supply for the same kVA loading ?
 Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Power Factor Improvement 109

Solution :
kW = 300
kVA = = 500 kVA
cosφ 0 ⋅ 6
kW at 0·6 p.f. = 300 kW
kW at 1 p.f. = 500 × 1 = 500 kW
∴ Increased power supplied by the alternator
= 500 − 300 = 200 kW
Note the importance of power factor improvement. When the p.f. of the alternator is unity, the
500 kVA are also 500 kW and the engine driving the alternator has to be capable of developing this
power together with the losses in the alternator. But when the power factor of the load is 0·6, the
power is only 300 kW. Therefore, the engine is developing only 300 kW, though the alternator is
supplying its rated output of 500 kVA.
Example 6.2 A single phase motor connected to 400 V, 50 Hz supply takes 31·7A at a power
factor of 0·7 lagging. Calculate the capacitance required in parallel with the motor to raise the
power factor to 0·9 lagging.
Solution : The circuit and phasor diagrams are shown in Figs. 6.8 and 6.9 respectively. Here
motor M is taking a current IM of 31·7A. The current IC taken by the capacitor must be such that when
combined with IM, the resultant current I lags the voltage by an angle φ where cos φ = 0·9.

Referring to the phasor diagram in Fig. 6.9,

Active component of IM = IM cos φM = 31·7 × 0·7 = 22·19A
Active component of I = I cos φ = I × 0·9
These components are represented by OA in Fig. 6.9.
22 ⋅19
∴ I = = 24·65A
0⋅9
Reactive component of IM = IM sin φM = 31·7 × 0·714* = 22·6A
Reactive component of I = I sin φ = 24·65 1 − 0 ⋅ 9 2
a f
= 24·65 × 0·436 = 10·75 A
It is clear from Fig. 6.9 that :
IC = Reactive component of IM − Reactive component of I
= 22·6 − 10·75 = 11·85A
V
But IC = = V × 2π f C
XC
or 11·85 = 400 × 2π × 50 × C
−6
∴ C = 94·3 × 10 F = 94·3 µF
sin φM = 1 − (0 ⋅ 7 )
2
* 1 − cos 2 φM = = 0·714