Semester: IV

Subject Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

Unit 2

1a. Draw the flowchart and explain about Booth's algorithm.

Answer:

Booth's Algorithm: An algorithm for multiplying binary numbers in two's complement

notation.

Flowchart:

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+-------------+
| Start |
+-------------+
|
v
+-------------+
| Initialize |
| M, Q, Q-1 |
+-------------+
|
v
+-------------+
| Check Q0, Q-1|
+-------------+
|
/------------\
| 10 | 00 |
/ v v \
| +M | do nothing |
v | |
+--------+ +-----------+ +--------+
| Add | | Subtract|
| M | | M |
+--------+ +--------+
|
v
+-------------+
| Arithmetic |
| Shift Right |
+-------------+
|
v
+-------------+
| Count = 0? |
+-------------+
|
/ \
No Yes
| v
/----------\
 v
+-------------+
| Store Result|
+-------------+
|
v
+-------------+
| End |
+-------------+

Explanation:

1. Initialize: M = multiplicand, Q = multiplier, Q-1 = 0, and count = number of bits.

2. Check Q0, Q-1:
o If Q0 Q-1 = 10, subtract M from the product.
o If Q0 Q-1 = 01, add M to the product.
o If Q0 Q-1 = 00 or 11, do nothing.
3. Arithmetic Shift Right: Shift the product and adjust Q-1.
4. Count: Decrement the count. If count is not zero, repeat the process.

1b. Multiply 100111 with 11011 using Booth's algorithm.

Answer: Multiplicand (M): 100111 (binary for 39 in decimal)

Multiplier (Q): 11011 (binary for -5 in decimal, using two's complement)

Let's use 6-bit representation for both numbers:

• 100111 (M)
• 111011 (Q in 2's complement for -5)

Steps:

1. Initial values:
o A=0
o Q = 111011
o Q-1 = 0
o Count = 6
2. Step by step:
o Iteration 1:
▪ Q0 Q-1 = 11 (do nothing)
▪ Arithmetic shift right: A = 000000, Q = 011101, Q-1 = 1
o Iteration 2:
▪ Q0 Q-1 = 01 (Add M to A)
▪ A = 000000 + 100111 = 100111
▪ Arithmetic shift right: A = 010011, Q = 101110, Q-1 = 1
o Iteration 3:
▪ Q0 Q-1 = 10 (Subtract M from A)
▪ A = 010011 - 100111 = 101100
▪ Arithmetic shift right: A = 110110, Q = 110111, Q-1 = 0
o Iteration 4:
▪ Q0 Q-1 = 11 (do nothing)
 ▪ Arithmetic shift right: A = 111011, Q = 011011, Q-1 = 1
o Iteration 5:
▪ Q0 Q-1 = 01 (Add M to A)
▪ A = 111011 + 100111 = 110010
▪ Arithmetic shift right: A = 111001, Q = 101101, Q-1 = 1
o Iteration 6:
▪ Q0 Q-1 = 10 (Subtract M from A)
▪ A = 111001 - 100111 = 010100
▪ Arithmetic shift right: A = 001010, Q = 110110, Q-1 = 1
3. Final result (A and Q): 001010110110

The product of 100111 (39) and 11011 (-5) is 110110010 which is -195 in decimal.

2. Explain logical shift and rotate instructions with examples.

Answer:

1. Logical Shift:
o Logical Shift Left (LSL): Shifts all bits in a binary number to the left, the
leftmost bit is discarded, and a 0 is inserted at the rightmost bit.
▪ Example: 1010 << 1 results in 0100.
o Logical Shift Right (LSR): Shifts all bits in a binary number to the right, the
rightmost bit is discarded, and a 0 is inserted at the leftmost bit.
▪ Example: 1010 >> 1 results in 0101.
2. Rotate Instructions:
o Rotate Left (ROL): All bits are rotated to the left; the leftmost bit is placed at
the rightmost position.
▪ Example: 1010 rol 1 results in 0101.
o Rotate Right (ROR): All bits are rotated to the right; the rightmost bit is
placed at the leftmost position.
▪ Example: 1010 ror 1 results in 0101.

3. Explain different types of instructions with examples. Compare their relative merits
and demerits.

Answer:

1. Data Transfer Instructions:

o Move, load, store.
o Example: MOV AX, BX
o Merits: Efficient data handling.
o Demerits: Limited to data movement.
2. Arithmetic Instructions:
o Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division.
 oExample: ADD AX, BX
oMerits: Performs mathematical operations.
oDemerits: Can be slow for complex operations.
3. Logical Instructions:
o AND, OR, NOT, XOR.
o Example: AND AX, BX
o Merits: Useful for bitwise operations.
o Demerits: Not suitable for arithmetic operations.
4. Control Transfer Instructions:
o Jump, call, return.
o Example: JMP label
o Merits: Controls the flow of the program.
o Demerits: Can make debugging difficult.
5. Input/Output Instructions:
o IN, OUT.
o Example: IN AX, DX
o Merits: Handles I/O operations.
o Demerits: Device dependent.

4. Explain different rotate instructions.

Answer:

1. Rotate Left (ROL):

o Rotates bits to the left.
o Example: 1010 rol 1 results in 0101.
2. Rotate Right (ROR):
o Rotates bits to the right.
o Example: 1010 ror 1 results in 0101.
3. Rotate through Carry Left (RCL):
o Rotates bits to the left through the carry flag.
o Example: 1010 with CF = 1, rcl 1 results in 0101 with CF = 1.
4. Rotate through Carry Right (RCR):
o Rotates bits to the right through the carry flag.
o Example: 1010 with CF = 1, rcr 1 results in 0101 with CF = 1.

5. Explain the memory reference instructions with examples.

Answer:

Memory reference instructions involve accessing memory to retrieve or store data. Examples
include:

1. LOAD:
o Example: LOAD R1, 100 (Loads the content of memory location 100 into
register R1).
 2. STORE:
o Example: STORE R1, 100 (Stores the content of register R1 into memory
location 100).
3. ADD:
o Example: ADD R1, 100 (Adds the content of memory location 100 to register
R1).
4. SUBTRACT:
o Example: SUB R1, 100 (Subtracts the content of memory location 100 from
register R1).
5. MULTIPLY:
o Example: MUL R1, 100 (Multiplies the content of register R1 with the content
of memory location 100).

6. Explain with an example how to multiply two unsigned binary numbers.

Answer:

To multiply 110 (6) and 101 (5):

1. Write both numbers aligned right.

2. Multiply each bit of the second number by the first number, shifting left each time.

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110
x 101
--------
110 (110 * 1)
000 (110 * 0, shifted left)
+ 110 (110 * 1, shifted left twice)
--------
100110 (Result in binary)

Result: 100110 which is 30 in decimal.

7. Explain the different types of instruction formats with examples.

Answer:

1. Zero Address Instruction:

o Stack-based, no operands.
o Example: PUSH, POP
2. One Address Instruction:
o Single operand, usually implied accumulator.
o Example: LOAD A
3. Two Address Instruction:
o Two operands, source and destination.
 oExample: MOV A, B
4. Three Address Instruction:
o Three operands.
o Example: ADD A, B, C (A = B + C)
5. Variable Address Instruction:
o Instructions can have different numbers of addresses.
o Example: ADD A, MOV B, C

8. Explain instruction cycle with necessary steps and explain different instructions with
examples.

Answer:

Instruction Cycle steps:

1. Fetch: Retrieve instruction from memory.

o Example: MOV AX, BX
2. Decode: Interpret the instruction.
3. Execute: Perform the operation.
4. Store: Write back the result.

Different Instructions:

1. Data Transfer:
o MOV AX, BX
2. Arithmetic:
o ADD AX, BX
3. Logical:
o AND AX, BX
4. Control:
o JMP LABEL
5. I/O:
o IN AX, DX

9. Explain the following instructions:

• (i) MOV
• (ii) ADD
• (iii) SUB
• (iv) AND
• (v) JMP

Answer:

1. MOV:
o Transfers data from one location to another.
o Example: MOV AX, BX
 2. ADD:
o Adds two values.
o Example: ADD AX, BX
3. SUB:
o Subtracts one value from another.
o Example: SUB AX, BX
4. AND:
o Performs a bitwise AND operation.
o Example: AND AX, BX
5. JMP:
o Unconditionally jumps to a specified address.
o Example: JMP LABEL

BY Laxmikant S Doijode
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