Aeronautical Engineering Report

Year 12 Engineering studies Brent Covalenco Garry Braid

 Table of Contents
1. Title page
2. Table of contents
3. Purpose and scope of the report
4. Introduction
5.
 Purpose and scope of the report (outcome H5.1)
The purpose of this report is to analyse and document key aspects of aeronautical
engineering, focusing on propulsion systems and material advancements in aviation. It covers
the evolution of different propulsion systems over the last century, their operational
principles, and their impact on society and the environment. Additionally, the report examines
the properties and structures of various materials used in aircraft manufacturing, such as
aluminium alloys and composite materials, and justifies their selection. Current innovations
in material technologies are also explored. The practical component involves designing a jet
turbine using aluminium cans and 3D-printed parts, testing it with a desktop fan, and
evaluating its effectiveness. The report follows the standard engineering report format,
including detailed drawings and analysis.
Students are required to complete two components that detail various aspects of Aeronautical
Engineering. In one component, students are to design a Jet Turbine and construct that design
from 330ml aluminium drinking cans and 3D printed parts. This Jet turbine will then be
tested via the wind generated by a desktop fan. Component two requires the student to write
an Engineering Report on propulsion systems and material advancements within the aviation
industry.

Introduction
What is aeronautical engineering?
Aeronautical engineering is a field of engineering that focuses on designing, developing,
testing, and producing aircraft and related systems and flight capable vehicles. This type of
engineering involves and engineer using and applying mathematics, theory, knowledge, and
problem-solving skills to transform flight related concepts into functioning aeronautical
designs that are then built and operated. In practice, that means aeronautical engineers design,
build and test the planes, drones and helicopters you see flying overhead. With an eye on the
sky, these workers also remain at the forefront of some of the field’s most exciting
innovations — from autonomous airship-fixing robots to high-flying hoverboards and solar-
powered Internet drones.

What is an aircraft?
An aircraft is a machine (such as an airplane, glider, or helicopter to name a few) that can
travel through the air and is supported by either its own buoyancy or by the action of air
against its surfaces.

Propulsion systems
 H4.1 Investigates the extent of technological change in engineering
Identify the different propulsion systems used for flight within the last century
and describe the extent of change (Outcome H4.1)
Describe each of their operational principles (Outcome H4.1)
Identify Extent of change Operational Photos
principles
Early A piston engine is an Predominantly used Operates on the four-
1900s – engine utilising piston from the early 1900s stroke cycle (intake,
Piston working in cylinder through World War II, compression, power,
engine and usually involving piston engines were exhaust). Air and
reciprocating motion. the primary power fuel mix enters the
source for aircraft. cylinder, is
An example using the They evolved from compressed by the
piston engine is the simple, low-powered piston, ignited by a
wright brothers first engines to more spark plug, and the
flight in 1903. powerful, multi- resulting explosion
cylinder designs, drives the piston
allowing for greater downward,
range and payload converting chemical
capacities. energy into
Technological mechanical work.
improvements
included better
materials, enhanced
fuel efficiency, and
more reliable ignition
systems.
1930s – A turbojet engine is a First developed in the Operates by
Turbojet jet engine which late 1930s and widely compressing air with
engine produces all its thrust adopted during World axial or centrifugal
by ejecting a high War II, turbojets compressors, mixing
energy gas stream revolutionized it with fuel, and
from the engine aviation with their igniting the mixture.
exhaust nozzle. ability to achieve The high-speed
higher speeds and exhaust gases exit
An example using the altitudes than piston through a nozzle,
turbojet engine was engines. Over time, generating thrust via
the Heinkel He 178, they have evolved to Newton's third law
the world's first include afterburners of motion (action
turbojet powered for increased thrust and reaction).
aircraft, which flew on and improvements in
August 27, 1939. materials and cooling
techniques to handle
higher temperatures
and pressures.
1940s – A Turboprop Engine is Introduced in the Combines jet engine
Turboprop a hybrid engine that 1940s, turboprop and propeller
engine provides jet thrust and engines offered a technology. Air is
drives a propeller. It is significant increase in compressed by a
basically like a efficiency and power series of compressor
turbojet except that an compared to piston blades, mixed with
added turbine, engines. They became fuel and ignited in
rearward of the widely used in the combustion
combustion chamber, regional and military chamber, and the
works through a shaft transport aircraft. expanding gases turn
and speed-reducing Over the years, a turbine connected
gears to turn a advancements in to a propeller.
propeller at the front materials,
of the engine. aerodynamics, and
fuel systems have
An example using the improved their
Turboprop engine performance,
were Vicker Viscounts reliability, and fuel
powered by the Rolls efficiency.
Royce Dart
Turboprop.
1950s – The Ramjet engine is a Developed in the mid- Ramjet - Operates at Ramjet
Ramjet jet engine having in its 20th century, these high speeds using
and forward end a engines are primarily the forward motion
Scramjet continuous inlet of air used in military and of the aircraft to
engine so that there is a experimental compress incoming
compressing effect applications due to air. The air is mixed
produced on the air their high-speed with fuel and ignited
taken in while the capabilities. Advances in a combustion
engine is in motion in materials and chamber. The high-
with the compressed aerodynamics have speed exhaust gases
air that enters the enabled their use in generate thrust.
combustion chamber missiles and
and the constant experimental aircraft, Scramjet - Like Scramjet
burning of the fuel pushing the ramjets but designed
resulting in a boundaries of speed for hypersonic
continuous jet of hot and altitude. speeds. Airflow
gases. remains supersonic
throughout the
A Scramjet engine is engine. Air is
an engine designed for compressed by the
speeds beyond Mach aircraft's speed,
6, which mixes fuel mixed with fuel, and
into air flowing ignited, generating
through it at high-speed exhaust
supersonic speeds; it is and thrust.
intended for
hypersonic aircraft.

An example using the

 Ramjet and Scramjet
engine is 1966: First
ramjet-powered flight
(Lockheed D-21).
2004: First scramjet-
powered flight (NASA
X-43).
1960s – A turbofan engine is a Emerging in the 1950s Like turbojets but
Turbofan jet engine variant and 1960s, turbofans with an additional
engine which produces thrust have become the fan at the front. A
using a combination of dominant engine type large volume of air
jet core efflux and for commercial bypasses the core
bypass air which has aviation. They offer engine, creating
been accelerated by a better fuel efficiency, additional thrust.
ducted fan that is lower noise levels, The bypass air also
driven by the jet core. and greater thrust cools the exhaust,
compared to turbojets. improving fuel
An example using the Technological efficiency and
Turbofan engine is the advancements include reducing noise.
German Daimler-Benz high-bypass ratios,
DB 670, designated composite materials,
the 109-007 by the and sophisticated
German RLM computer controls.
(Ministry of Aviation)
which utilised the first
turbofan engine run on
a test bed.

2010s - An electric propulsion Recently emerging as Uses electric motors

present – system uses energy a focus of research to drive propellers.
electric collected by either and development, Energy is supplied
propulsion solar arrays (solar electric propulsion by batteries or fuel
system electric propulsion) or offers the potential for cells, converted to
a nuclear reactor zero-emission flight mechanical energy
(nuclear electric and reduced noise. by the motor.
propulsion) to Technological Provides thrust via
generate thrust, advancements in rotating propellers,
eliminating many of battery energy density, promising for short-
the needs and electric motor range,
limitations of storing efficiency, and environmentally
propellants onboard. lightweight materials friendly aviation.
are driving progress in
An example using the this field, with
electric propulsion applications in small
system is the First aircraft and urban air
electric aircraft flight mobility vehicles.
(Pipistrel Alpha
Electro) which was
flown in 2015.
 H4.3 Applies understanding of social, environmental and cultural
implications of technological change in engineering to the analysis of
specific engineering problems
Describe the implications of advancement in propulsion systems to both the
society and environment. (Outcome H4.3)
The development of advanced propulsion systems over the last century has brought about
significant implications for both society and the environment. These technological
advancements have revolutionized air travel, enhanced global connectivity and economic
growth, while also bolstered military capabilities and emergency response. However, they
have also introduced substantial environmental challenges, including increased greenhouse
gas emissions, noise pollution, and resource depletion. Balancing these societal benefits with
environmental sustainability remains a critical challenge as we continue to innovate in the
field of aerospace propulsion. So, in theory there has been both benefits and concerns which
has arisen throughout history in the development of propulsion systems.
Societal Implications
Increased Air Travel and Connectivity
Benefit:
Advances in propulsion technology, particularly with the introduction of turbojets and
turbofans, have made air travel faster, more efficient, and more affordable. This has led to
greater global connectivity, facilitating international business, tourism, and cultural exchange.
Impact:
Improved Accessibility to Remote Regions: Regions that were once isolated due to
geographical barriers are now more accessible, promoting regional development and reducing
disparities.
Economic Growth through Tourism and Trade: The ease of air travel has boosted the tourism
industry and enabled global trade, contributing significantly to the economies of many
countries.
Enhanced Cultural Understanding: Frequent international travel fosters cultural exchange and
understanding, promoting global peace and cooperation.
Concerns:
Overtourism: Popular destinations may face issues such as overcrowding, strain on local
infrastructure, and environmental degradation.
Economic Disparities: While some regions benefit from increased connectivity, others may
be left behind, exacerbating economic inequalities.
Health Risks: Increased air travel can facilitate the rapid spread of diseases, as seen during
pandemics.
Military and defence Capabilities
Benefit:
Innovations such as turbojets, ramjets, and scramjets have significantly enhanced military
aircraft capabilities, including speed, range, and manoeuvrability.
Impact:
Improved National defence: Advanced aircraft can protect national borders more effectively,
respond to threats more swiftly, and carry out reconnaissance and surveillance operations
with greater precision.
Quicker Response Times in Conflict Situations: High-speed aircraft can deploy forces and
deliver supplies rapidly in conflict zones, giving military forces a strategic advantage.
Advancements in Aerospace Technology: Military innovations often spill over into civilian
applications, leading to improvements in commercial aviation and other industries.
Concerns:
Escalation of Arms Race: Technological advancements in military aviation can trigger an
arms race, leading to increased global tensions and instability.
Ethical Issues: The use of advanced military aircraft in conflicts raises ethical concerns,
particularly regarding civilian casualties and the conduct of warfare.
Environmental Impact: Military aircraft often have higher emissions and noise levels,
contributing to environmental degradation.
Economic Growth and Job Creation
Benefit:
The aerospace industry has become a major economic driver, creating jobs in manufacturing,
maintenance, airport operations, and related sectors.
Impact:
Boosted Local and National Economies: The aerospace industry supports a wide range of
ancillary businesses, from suppliers of raw materials to service providers, contributing to
overall economic growth.
Development of Skilled Labor: The industry requires highly skilled workers, leading to
investments in education and training programs that benefit the broader workforce.
Advancement in Related Technologies: Innovations in aerospace propulsion spur
developments in other fields, such as materials science, electronics, and information
technology.
Concerns:
Job Displacement: Technological advancements can lead to automation, potentially
displacing workers and requiring them to acquire new skills.
Economic Dependency: Regions heavily dependent on the aerospace industry may face
economic challenges if the industry experiences downturns.
Resource Depletion: The industry’s reliance on specific materials and resources can lead to
depletion and increased competition for these resources.
Emergency and Humanitarian Aid
Benefit:
Faster and more reliable aircraft allow for quicker delivery of humanitarian aid, disaster
relief, and medical supplies.
Impact:
Improved Response Times in Emergencies: Advanced aircraft can reach disaster-stricken
areas swiftly, delivering essential supplies and personnel when they are most needed.
Saving Lives: The ability to quickly transport medical teams and equipment can save lives in
emergencies, such as natural disasters or disease outbreaks.
Reducing Suffering: Rapid deployment of aid can alleviate suffering by providing food,
shelter, and medical care to affected populations.
Concerns:
Coordination Challenges: Effective delivery of aid requires coordination among various
organizations and governments, which can be complicated and slow.
Logistical Issues: Transporting aid to remote or conflict-affected areas can be logistically
challenging and dangerous.
Dependence on Technology: Overreliance on advanced technology can lead to vulnerabilities
if systems fail or are disrupted.
Overall, while the advancements in propulsion systems have brought numerous benefits to
society, they also present a range of challenges and concerns that need to be carefully
managed to ensure sustainable and equitable development.
Environmental Implications
Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Climate Change
Concern:
Traditional propulsion systems, especially those relying on fossil fuels, are major contributors
to greenhouse gas emissions, intensifying global warming and climate change.
Impact:
Increased Atmospheric CO2 Levels: Aircraft engines combust large quantities of fossil fuels,
releasing vast amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere. This greenhouse gas
accumulates, creating a blanket that traps heat and warms the planet.
Global Temperature Rise: The buildup of CO2 and other greenhouse gases enhances the
greenhouse effect, leading to an overall rise in global temperatures. This warming disrupts
weather patterns and accelerates the melting of polar ice caps.
Extreme Weather Events: Climate change is linked to more frequent and severe weather
events, such as hurricanes, droughts, and heavy rainfall. These events cause widespread
devastation, impacting human lives, infrastructure, and natural habitats.
Adverse Effects on Ecosystems: Shifts in temperature and weather patterns affect
ecosystems, leading to changes in species distributions, the loss of biodiversity, and
challenges for agriculture and water resources. Coral reefs, forests, and polar regions are
particularly vulnerable.
Noise Pollution
Concern:
Jet engines, particularly turbojets and turbofans, generate significant noise pollution, affecting
communities near airports and disrupting wildlife.
Impact:
Health Issues in Humans: Constant exposure to high noise levels from aircraft can cause
hearing loss, sleep disturbances, and increased stress among residents near airports. Chronic
noise exposure is also linked to cardiovascular problems and cognitive impairment in
children.
Psychological Stress: The incessant noise from aircraft can lead to heightened stress and
anxiety, reducing overall well-being and quality of life. People living in noise-polluted areas
may experience a diminished sense of tranquillity.
Disruption of Animal Habitats: Noise pollution interferes with the natural behaviours of
wildlife, such as communication, mating rituals, and hunting practices. Marine animals, for
example, can be disoriented by underwater noise from aircraft passing overhead.
Impact on Wildlife: Species may be forced to migrate away from noisy environments, leading
to ecological imbalances. Birds and mammals might avoid nesting or foraging near noisy
areas, which can reduce biodiversity and alter local ecosystems.
Resource Consumption and Depletion
Concern:
The aerospace industry demands vast amounts of natural resources, including fossil fuels and
rare materials essential for manufacturing advanced components.
Impact:
Depletion of Non-Renewable Resources: Continuous reliance on fossil fuels for aviation
contributes to the rapid depletion of these finite resources. As reserves diminish, the cost of
extraction and fuel prices rise, creating economic and energy security concerns.
Environmental Degradation from Extraction Processes: The extraction of raw materials
needed for aircraft manufacturing, such as metals and rare earth elements, often leads to
significant environmental damage. Mining operations can cause habitat destruction, soil
erosion, and water contamination.
Increased Waste Generation: The production and disposal of aircraft components generate
substantial industrial waste, including hazardous materials. This waste
contributes to pollution and strains landfill capacities, posing long-term environmental risks.
Air Quality
Concern:
Emissions from aircraft engines, including nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter,
significantly contribute to air pollution.
Impact:
Adverse Health Effects in Humans: Pollutants like NOx and particulate matter are harmful to
human health, causing respiratory issues such as asthma, bronchitis, and other lung diseases.
Long-term exposure can lead to cardiovascular diseases and premature death.
Environmental Impacts: Nitrogen oxides can react with other atmospheric compounds to
form ground-level ozone and acid rain. Ground-level ozone is a harmful air pollutant, while
acid rain can damage vegetation, aquatic ecosystems, and infrastructure.
Smog Formation: Particulate matter from aircraft emissions contributes to smog, reducing air
quality and visibility. Smog poses serious health risks, particularly for children, the elderly,
and those with preexisting respiratory conditions.
Long-Term Ecosystem Damage: Pollutants from aircraft emissions can accumulate in the
environment, causing long-term damage to ecosystems. For example, acid rain can acidify
soils and water bodies, harming plants and aquatic life, and altering natural processes.
In summary, while advancements in propulsion systems have dramatically transformed
aviation, enabling unprecedented connectivity and technological progress, they also pose
significant environmental challenges. Addressing these issues is crucial for ensuring a
sustainable future, where the benefits of aviation can be enjoyed without compromising the
health and well-being of our planet and its inhabitants.
 Materials
H1.2 Differentiates between the properties and structure of materials
and justifies the selection of materials in engineering applications
Provide a timeline of material use in the construction of aircraft (Outcome
H1.2)
Analyses the properties and structure of following materials and justifies their
use within aircraft manufacturing: (Outcome H1.2)
Material Analysis and Justification Photos
1900s – Wood and Properties and Structure
1930s Fabric Analysis: Wood, such as
spruce, offered a good
strength-to-weight ratio,
flexibility, and ease of
shaping. Fabric covering
provided aerodynamic
surfaces, was lightweight,
and allowed for easy repairs.

Justification for Use: Wood

was predominantly used in
aircraft frames, wings, and
fuselage structures due to its
availability, lightweight
nature, and sufficient strength
for early aircraft designs.
Fabric covering was applied
over wooden frames to create
smooth aerodynamic
surfaces, especially on wings
and control surfaces.
1940s – Aluminium Properties and Structure
1960s Alloys Analysis: Aluminium alloys
like Aluminium 2024 and
7075 offered high strength,
corrosion resistance, and
good machinability. They
could be easily formed into
complex shapes.

Justification for Use:

Aluminium alloys became
standard in aircraft
manufacturing for structural
components like airframes,
wings, and engine parts.
Their strength-to-weight ratio
allowed for lighter aircraft
designs without
compromising structural
integrity. They were also
resistant to corrosion, crucial
for aircraft exposed to
weather elements.
1970s – Composite Properties and Structure
1990s Materials Analysis: Composite
materials, such as carbon
fibre reinforced polymers
(CFRP) and glass fibre
reinforced polymers (GFRP),
offered high strength,
stiffness, and corrosion
resistance. They could be
tailored for specific
applications.

Justification for Use: CFRP,

with its excellent strength-to-
weight ratio and fatigue
resistance, found applications
in critical areas like wing
structures, where weight
reduction was crucial. GFRP,
being less expensive, was
used in less stressed
components like fairings and
interior panels, balancing
cost-effectiveness with
performance.
2000s – Titanium Properties and Structure
2010s Alloys Analysis: Titanium alloys like
Titanium 6Al-4V offered
high strength, corrosion
resistance, and heat
resistance. They were
lightweight compared to steel
and had good fatigue
properties.

Justification for Use:

Titanium alloys were
employed in aircraft
components subjected to high
stress, such as landing gear,
engine parts (like compressor
blades), and structural
components in supersonic
aircraft. Their ability to
withstand high temperatures
made them suitable for
engine applications.
2010s – Additive Properties and Structure
present Manufacturing Analysis: Additive
manufacturing techniques,
including 3D printing,
allowed for precise
fabrication of complex
geometries using materials
like high-performance
polymers and metal alloys.

Justification for Use: 3D

printed parts are used in
aircraft for components like
brackets, ducting, interior
fittings, and even some
structural elements. They
offer advantages such as
rapid prototyping, reduced
material waste, and
customization, contributing to
streamlined manufacturing
processes in the aerospace
industry.

Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys:

Aluminium Silicon (Al-Si) Alloys:
Properties and Structure: Al-Si alloys offer good strength, corrosion resistance, and thermal
conductivity. They are lightweight and easily machinable.
Application in Aircraft: Al-Si alloys are commonly used in aircraft structural components
such as fuselage frames, ribs, and bulkheads due to their strength-to-weight ratio and ease of
fabrication.
Aluminium Silicon Magnesium (Al-Si-Mg) Alloys:
Properties and Structure: Al-Si-Mg alloys provide higher strength and improved corrosion
resistance compared to Al-Si alloys. They also have good weldability.
Application in Aircraft: These alloys are used in critical components like wing structures,
landing gear parts, and engine mounts where higher strength and fatigue resistance are
required.
Aluminium Copper (Al-Cu) Alloys:
Properties and Structure: Al-Cu alloys offer excellent strength, fatigue resistance, and
machinability. They also have good corrosion resistance.
Application in Aircraft: Al-Cu alloys find use in aircraft components subjected to high stress,
such as wing spars, engine parts, and structural fittings, due to their high strength properties.
Thermosetting Polymers:
Properties and Structure: Thermosetting polymers like epoxy resins offer high strength,
stiffness, and temperature resistance after curing. They are lightweight and have good
chemical resistance.
Application in Aircraft: These polymers are used in aircraft composite structures, such as
panels, fairings, and interior components, providing lightweight yet strong alternatives to
traditional materials.
Composite Materials:
Reinforced Glass Fibre:
Properties and Structure: Glass fibre composites offer good strength, stiffness, and impact
resistance. They are lightweight and have excellent dimensional stability.
Application in Aircraft: Glass fibre composites are used in aircraft radomes, fairings, and
secondary structures due to their electrical transparency and ease of fabrication.
Kevlar (Aramid) Fibers:
Properties and Structure: Kevlar fibres provide high tensile strength, impact resistance, and
flame retardancy. They are lightweight and have excellent fatigue properties.
Application in Aircraft: Kevlar composites are used in aircraft armour panels, protective
covers, and structural components requiring high strength and impact resistance.
Carbon Fiber Composites:
Properties and Structure: Carbon fibre composites offer exceptional strength-to-weight ratio,
stiffness, and fatigue resistance. They are lightweight and have low thermal expansion.
Application in Aircraft: Carbon fibre composites are extensively used in aircraft wings,
fuselage sections, and control surfaces for their superior strength and lightweight properties.
Fibre Metal Laminate (FML):
Properties and Structure: FML combines layers of metal (usually aluminium) and composite
materials (such as glass or carbon fibres) bonded together. It offers a balance of strength,
toughness, and fatigue resistance.
Application in Aircraft: FML is used in aircraft structural panels, cabin interior components,
and repair patches due to its high damage tolerance, fatigue performance, and ease of
repairability.
Further information on use of materials in aircrafts
Wood and Fabric: Historically used in early aircraft like the Wright Flyer, wood and fabric
were lightweight but required significant maintenance and were prone to weather-related
deterioration.
Aluminium Alloys: Aluminium alloys are widely used in aircraft due to their lightweight
nature, corrosion resistance, and decent strength. Common alloys include 2024, 6061, and
7075.
Titanium Alloys: Titanium alloys offer high strength, low density, and excellent corrosion
resistance. They are used in components exposed to high temperatures or stress, such as jet
engine parts.
Steel: Steel is exceptionally strong and is used in high-stress components like landing gear
due to its strength, stiffness, and resistance to damage.
Graphite-Epoxy (Composite Material): Graphite-epoxy composites are lightweight and
strong, offering properties like aluminium but with reduced weight.
Fiberglass (Composite Material): Fiberglass composites, consisting of glass fibres in a resin
matrix, provide strength and are used in various aircraft components.
Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymers (CFRP) (Composite Material): CFRP offers high
strength-to-weight ratios, corrosion resistance, and design flexibility. It is extensively used in
modern aircraft structures for weight savings and improved performance.
Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs): CMCs combine ceramic fibres with a ceramic matrix,
providing high strength, temperature resistance, and low weight. They are used in high-
temperature components like turbine blades.
These materials are chosen based on their specific properties to meet the diverse requirements
of aircraft construction, including strength, weight, corrosion resistance, temperature
tolerance, and design flexibility. Each material contributes uniquely to the overall
performance and efficiency of modern aircraft.

Examples of use of each material in history

Wood and Fabric:
Example: The Wright Flyer (1903)
The Wright brothers' first successful powered aircraft, the Wright Flyer, used a wooden frame
made of spruce and fabric covering made of muslin.
Wood was used for the frame and wings due to its lightweight nature and structural strength,
while fabric covering provided aerodynamic surfaces and reduced drag.
Aluminium Alloys:
Example: Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress (1930s-1940s)
The Boeing B-17, an iconic World War II bomber, utilised aluminium alloys extensively in its
airframe and structural components.
Aluminium alloys offered strength, durability, and corrosion resistance, making them ideal
for military aircraft subjected to harsh environments and combat conditions.
Composite Materials:
Example: Airbus A300 (1970s)
The Airbus A300 was one of the first commercial aircraft to extensively incorporate
composite materials in its construction.
CFRP (Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer) composites were used in critical components like
wings and tail sections, offering significant weight savings and improved fuel efficiency.
Titanium Alloys:
Example: Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird (1960s-1990s)
The SR-71, a reconnaissance aircraft, featured extensive use of titanium alloys in its airframe,
especially in areas exposed to high temperatures during supersonic flight.
Titanium alloys provided the necessary strength, heat resistance, and lightweight properties
required for the SR-71's extreme operating conditions.
Additive Manufacturing:
Example: GE Aviation's LEAP Engine (2016)
The LEAP engine, developed by GE Aviation, incorporates 3D printed components using
advanced materials like high-temperature alloys and ceramic composites.
Additive manufacturing allowed for complex geometries and optimized designs, resulting in
improved engine performance, fuel efficiency, and reduced environmental impact.

H1.1 Describes the scope of engineering and critically analyses

current innovations
Identify and describe current innovations within material technologies used in
the aeronautical industry (Outcome H1.1)
The aeronautical industry continually innovates in material technologies to enhance aircraft
performance, safety, and sustainability. Here are some current innovations in material
technologies used in the aeronautical industry:
Advanced Composite Materials: The use of advanced composite materials, such as carbon
fibre-reinforced polymers (CFRP) and fiberglass composites, has significantly increased.
These materials offer high strength-to-weight ratios, corrosion resistance, and design
flexibility, leading to lighter and more fuel-efficient aircraft.

Nanostructured Materials: Nanotechnology is being applied to develop nanostructured

materials with unique properties. These materials offer improved strength, durability, and
resistance to extreme conditions, contributing to enhanced structural integrity and
performance of aircraft components.

Metal Matrix Composites (MMC): Metal matrix composites combine metals with ceramic or
carbon fibres, offering enhanced mechanical properties, thermal stability, and lightweight
characteristics. MMCs are used in critical components like engine parts to improve
performance and reliability.

Additive Manufacturing (3D Printing): Additive manufacturing techniques, such as 3D

printing, are revolutionizing aircraft production by enabling the fabrication of complex
geometries and customized components. This technology reduces material waste, lead times,
and production costs while allowing for rapid prototyping and design iterations.
Smart Materials: Smart materials, including shape memory alloys (SMAs) and piezoelectric
materials, are integrated into aircraft systems for sensing, actuation, and control. These
materials offer adaptive and responsive functionalities, improving safety, efficiency, and
comfort in aviation operations.

High-Temperature Materials: With the advancement of jet engine technology, high-

temperature materials like ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) and nickel-based superalloys
are utilized in turbine components. These materials withstand extreme heat and mechanical
stresses, enhancing engine performance and longevity.

Bio-inspired Materials: Inspired by nature, bio-inspired materials are being developed for
aerodynamic surfaces and structural components. Mimicking natural designs like bird
feathers or insect wings, these materials optimize aerodynamic efficiency, reduce drag, and
enhance fuel economy.
Recyclable and Sustainable Materials: There's a growing focus on using recyclable and
sustainable materials in aircraft manufacturing. Bio-based composites, recycled metals, and
environmentally friendly coatings are being explored to reduce environmental impact and
promote eco-friendly aviation practices.

These innovations in material technologies demonstrate the industry's commitment to

advancing aircraft capabilities while addressing challenges related to efficiency, performance,
environmental sustainability, and passenger safety.
Innovations in the aerospace industry are reshaping aircraft design, performance, and safety.
One key area of advancement is autonomous flight systems, where automation is gradually
making its way into aircraft operations. This trend may lead to single-pilot commercial
aircraft and potentially pilotless passenger aircraft in the future, enhancing efficiency and
safety.
Additive manufacturing, commonly known as 3D printing, is revolutionizing component
production in aerospace. This technology allows for lighter and more durable components
with complex geometries, contributing to improved aircraft performance and fuel efficiency.
Supersonic flight is making a comeback with new aircraft designs aiming to break the sound
barrier. This trend, exemplified by recent deals between airlines and supersonic aircraft
manufacturers, demands lightweight and durable materials to meet the stringent safety and
performance requirements of high-speed flight.
Artificial intelligence (AI) is playing a crucial role in aerospace, enabling faster data
processing, predictive analytics for maintenance, and supply chain management. Machine
learning algorithms enhance decision-making processes, leading to more efficient aircraft
operations and design improvements.

The Internet of Things (IoT) is transforming aerospace maintenance and repair through
predictive maintenance strategies. By monitoring components and analysing data, IoT
technologies help identify potential issues before they cause failures, ensuring aircraft
reliability and safety.
The constant search for new and advanced materials, such as graphene and other carbon-
based materials, is driving innovation in aerospace manufacturing. These materials offer
lightweight and high-strength properties, contributing to fuel efficiency and performance
enhancements.
Electric propulsion is another significant trend, offering quieter and environmentally friendly
aircraft operations. With approximately 215 electrically propelled aircraft in development,
this technology holds promise for the future of aviation, requiring manufacturers to adapt and
produce components suitable for electric propulsion systems.

Identifies and describes current innovations within the area of propulsion

technologies for the aeronautical industry (Outcome H1.1)
In the realm of propulsion technologies for the aeronautical industry, several exciting
innovations are shaping the future of aviation:
Electric Propulsion: Electric propulsion systems are gaining traction due to their potential for
quieter, more environmentally friendly aircraft operations. Electric propulsion involves using
electric motors powered by batteries or fuel cells to generate thrust. These systems offer
reduced emissions, lower operating costs, and the possibility of innovative aircraft designs.
Companies like Airbus, Boeing, and startups like Joby Aviation are actively exploring electric
propulsion for urban air mobility and short-haul flights.

Hybrid-Electric Propulsion: Hybrid-electric propulsion combines traditional jet engines with

electric propulsion systems. This approach aims to leverage the efficiency of jet engines
while harnessing the benefits of electric power for auxiliary functions or supplementary
thrust. Hybrid-electric aircraft can reduce fuel consumption and emissions, making them
attractive for regional and commuter flights. Projects like NASA's X-57 Maxwell and
Boeing's Eco Demonstrator program are advancing hybrid-electric propulsion technologies.

Hydrogen Fuel Cells: Hydrogen fuel cells are emerging as a promising alternative to
traditional aviation fuels. These cells generate electricity through a chemical reaction between
hydrogen and oxygen, producing water vapor as the only emission. Hydrogen-powered
aircraft offer zero-emission flights, addressing environmental concerns and contributing to
sustainable aviation. Airbus and Zero Avia are among the companies developing hydrogen
fuel cell propulsion for commercial aircraft.
Hydrogen Combustion Engines: Another approach to hydrogen-powered aviation is hydrogen
combustion engines. These engines burn hydrogen fuel directly in combustion chambers, like
traditional jet engines but with hydrogen as the fuel source. Hydrogen combustion engines
can provide high power output with lower emissions compared to conventional jet engines
running on fossil fuels. Projects like ZEROe from Airbus and initiatives by Universal
Hydrogen focus on advancing hydrogen combustion engine technologies for aircraft.

Alternative Fuel Blends: In addition to hydrogen, research and development efforts are
ongoing to explore alternative fuel blends for aviation. Sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs)
derived from renewable sources like biofuels, synthetic fuels, and blends of traditional and
alternative fuels are being tested for compatibility with existing aircraft engines. These fuels
aim to reduce carbon emissions and minimize the environmental impact of aviation.

Advanced Turbofan Engines: Traditional turbofan engines are also undergoing advancements
to improve efficiency, reduce emissions, and enhance performance. Innovations in engine
design, materials, and aerodynamics are leading to more fuel-efficient and environmentally
friendly turbofan engines. Manufacturers like Pratt & Whitney, Rolls-Royce, and GE
Aviation are at the forefront of developing next-generation turbofan engines with enhanced
capabilities.

These innovations in propulsion technologies are driving the aviation industry towards
greener, more sustainable, and technologically advanced solutions for future aircraft.

Critically analyses the importance of innovation within materials technologies

for the aeronautical industry in particular propulsion systems (Outcome H1.1)
Innovation within materials technologies is crucial for the aeronautical industry, especially in
the realm of propulsion systems, for several key reasons:
Efficiency and Performance: Advanced materials enable the development of more efficient
and high-performance propulsion systems. For example, lightweight materials like carbon
fibre composites reduce the overall weight of aircraft, leading to lower fuel consumption and
improved performance. Materials with high-temperature resistance, such as ceramic matrix
composites, allow engines to operate at higher temperatures, enhancing efficiency and power
output.

Environmental Sustainability: Innovative materials play a vital role in addressing

environmental concerns related to aviation. Propulsion systems utilizing sustainable
materials, such as biofuels or hydrogen fuel cells, contribute to reducing carbon emissions
and mitigating the industry's environmental impact. Lightweight materials also improve fuel
efficiency, leading to lower greenhouse gas emissions during aircraft operations.
Durability and Reliability: Materials innovation focuses on enhancing the durability and
reliability of propulsion systems. This is critical for ensuring the safety of aircraft and
passengers. Advanced materials undergo rigorous testing to withstand extreme conditions,
such as high temperatures, pressures, and mechanical stresses, without compromising
performance or integrity. This durability translates to longer service life and reduced
maintenance requirements, optimizing operational costs.

Technological Advancement: Propulsion systems are at the forefront of technological

advancement in the aerospace industry. Innovative materials enable the integration of
advanced features and functionalities into propulsion systems, such as adaptive designs, self-
healing capabilities, and enhanced thermal management. These technological advancements
improve overall system efficiency, responsiveness, and resilience to dynamic operating
conditions.
Competitive Advantage: Companies that invest in materials innovation gain a competitive
edge in the aerospace market. Cutting-edge materials allow for the development of next-
generation propulsion systems that offer superior performance, reliability, and environmental
sustainability compared to conventional solutions. This competitive advantage attracts
customers, fosters industry partnerships, and drives further research and development
investments.

Regulatory Compliance: Innovation in materials technologies is essential for meeting

stringent regulatory requirements and industry standards. Propulsion systems must adhere to
safety, environmental, and performance regulations set by aviation authorities worldwide.
Advanced materials that meet or exceed these standards ensure compliance and enable
manufacturers to bring innovative propulsion systems to market efficiently.

H2.2 Analyses and synthesises engineering applications in specific

fields and reports on the importance of these to society
Analyse the importance of advanced materials used in the manufacture of
aircraft on society. (Outcome H2.2)
The importance of advanced materials used in the manufacture of aircraft extends far beyond
the aerospace industry, significantly impacting society in various ways:
Safety and Reliability: Advanced materials contribute to enhancing the safety and reliability
of aircraft, directly benefiting society by reducing the risk of accidents and improving air
travel security. Materials like carbon fibre composites, ceramic matrix composites, and
advanced alloys offer superior strength-to-weight ratios, durability, and resistance to extreme
conditions, ensuring aircraft withstand operational stresses and environmental factors with
minimal maintenance requirements.
Environmental Impact: The use of advanced materials in aircraft manufacturing supports
environmental sustainability goals. Lightweight materials reduce fuel consumption and
emissions, promoting fuel efficiency and lower carbon footprints for airlines. This translates
into reduced air pollution, mitigating the environmental impact of air travel on local and
global scales, and aligning with efforts to combat climate change.

Efficiency and Performance: Aircraft made with advanced materials exhibit improved
efficiency and performance characteristics, benefiting society through faster travel times,
increased operational flexibility, and reduced operational costs for airlines. Enhanced
aerodynamics, reduced weight, and advanced propulsion systems enabled by these materials
contribute to smoother flights, optimized routes, and better overall travel experiences for
passengers.

Technological Advancement: The development and utilization of advanced materials in

aircraft manufacturing drive technological advancement in related industries and sectors.
Innovations in materials science, manufacturing processes, and engineering techniques lead
to spin-off technologies and applications that benefit society beyond aviation. For example,
advancements in composite materials and additive manufacturing techniques pioneered in
aerospace find applications in automotive, renewable energy, and infrastructure sectors,
fostering technological progress and economic growth.

Global Connectivity and Economic Impact: Aircraft made with advanced materials facilitate
global connectivity, enabling efficient air transportation networks that connect people,
businesses, and cultures worldwide. This connectivity stimulates economic growth, trade,
tourism, and cultural exchange, fostering international cooperation, collaboration, and
prosperity. The aviation industry, supported by advanced materials, creates jobs, drives
innovation, and contributes significantly to national and global economies.

Innovation and Inspiration: The pursuit of advanced materials and technologies in aircraft
manufacturing inspires innovation and creativity in future generations. It serves as a
testament to human ingenuity, pushing the boundaries of what is possible in engineering,
science, and technology. This inspiration motivates students, researchers, and entrepreneurs
to explore new frontiers, solve complex challenges, and make positive contributions to
society across diverse disciplines.
In essence, advanced materials used in the manufacture of aircraft play a pivotal role in
shaping modern society by improving safety, promoting environmental sustainability,
enhancing efficiency, driving technological progress, fostering global connectivity,
stimulating economic development, and inspiring innovation. Their impact transcends the
aerospace industry, influencing various aspects of human life and societal advancement.

H5.1 Works individually and in teams to solve specific engineering

problems and prepare engineering reports
Conclusion (Outcome H5.1)
In conclusion, my aeronautical engineering report encapsulates the dynamic landscape of
material technologies and propulsion systems in the aviation sector. It underscores the
relentless pursuit of innovation driving advancements that enhance aircraft performance,
safety, and sustainability. The practical aspect of designing and testing a Jet Turbine using
aluminium cans and 3D printed parts represents a pivotal step in bridging theoretical
knowledge with hands-on experience, nurturing a deeper understanding of engineering
principles. This hands-on approach not only fosters technical skills but also cultivates a
mindset of innovation and problem-solving essential for future engineers. By immersing
students in such practical exercises, we contribute to a robust engineering education
ecosystem that fuels ongoing progress and breakthroughs in aviation technology.

Practical (Teamwork between two members):

H3.3 Develops and uses specialised techniques in the application of
graphics as a communication tool

Provide Freehand and detailed CAD drawings of a designed propulsion system.

Include sectional views, isometric view and orthogonal views ensuring AS1100
standards are met. (Outcome H3.3)
 H5.1 Works individually and in teams to solve specific engineering
problems and prepare engineering reports

Design and produce using aluminium cans and minimal 3D printed components
an efficient blade turbine structure which will catch the breeze of a pedestal fan
and, through a flat belt drive, drive a small generator to achieve a maximum
voltage. (Outcome H5.1)

Analyse and explain the conversion of Energy from the electric motor in the Fan
providing wind, to the generation of current in the generator. (Outcome H5.1)

Evaluate the effectiveness of the final design in relation to the rest of the
classes. (Outcome H5.1)
Reference List (Outcome H3.2)

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