III.

Soil Classification

1
Outline

1. Purpose
2. Classification Systems
3. The Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
4. American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials System (AASHTO)
5. Suggested Homework

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 1. Purpose
Classifying soils into groups with similar behavior, in terms of
simple indices, can provide geotechnical engineers a general
guidance about engineering properties of the soils through the
accumulated experience.

Simple indices Classification Estimate Achieve

system engineering engineering
GSD, LL, PI (Language) properties purposes
Use the
accumulated
experience
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2. Classification Systems

Two commonly used systems:

• Unified Soil Classification System (USCS).

• American Association of State Highway and

Transportation Officials (AASHTO) System

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 3. Unified Soil Classification System
(USCS)
Origin of USCS:
This system was first developed by Professor A. Casagrande (1948) for the
purpose of airfield construction during World War II. Afterwards, it was
modified by Professor Casagrande, the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, and the
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to enable the system to be applicable to dams,
foundations, and other construction (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981).

Four major divisions:

(1) Coarse-grained
(2) Fine-grained
(3) Organic soils
(4) Peat

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 3.1 Definition of Grain Size

No specific
grain size-use
Atterberg limits

Gravel Sand Silt and

Boulders Cobbles Clay
Coarse Fine Coarse Medium Fine

300 mm 75 mm No.4 No.200

4.75 mm 0.075
19 mm No.10 No.40 mm
2.0 mm 0.425 mm

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3.2 General Guidance
50 %
Coarse-grained soils: Fine-grained soils:
Gravel Sand Silt Clay
NO. 4 NO.200
50%
4.75 mm 0.075 mm

•Grain size distribution •PL, LL LL>50

LL <50
•Cu •Plasticity chart
•Cc

Required tests:
Sieve analysis Atterberg limit 7
 3.3 Symbols

Soil symbols: Liquid limit symbols:

G: Gravel H: High LL (LL>50)
S: Sand L: Low LL (LL<50)
M: Silt
C: Clay Gradation symbols:
O: Organic W: Well-graded
Pt: Peat P: Poorly-graded
Well − graded soil
Example: SW, Well-graded sand 1 < Cc < 3 and Cu ≥ 4
SC, Clayey sand ( for gravels)
SM, Silty sand, 1 < Cc < 3 and Cu ≥ 6
( for sands)
MH, Elastic silt 8
3.4 Plasticity Chart
L H

• The A-line generally

separates the more
PI clay like materials
from silty materials,
and the organics
from the inorganics.

• The U-line indicates

the upper bound for
general soils.

LL

(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

Note: If the measured limits of soils are on the left of U-line, they should be rechecked.
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3.5 Procedures for Classification

Coarse-grained
material
Grain size
distribution

Fine-grained
material
LL, PI

Highly

(Santamarina et al., 2001)

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 Passing No.200 sieve 30 % LL= 33
3.6 Example Passing No.4 sieve 70 % PI= 12

Passing No.200 sieve 30%

Passing No.4 sieve 70%

LL = 33
PI = 12
PI= 0.73(LL-20), A-line
PI=0.73(33-20)=9.49
SC
(≥15% gravel)
Clayey sand with Highly
gravel
(Santamarina et al., 2001)
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3.7 Organic Soils

• Highly organic soils- Peat (Group symbol PT)

− A sample composed primarily of vegetable tissue in various stages
of decomposition and has a fibrous to amorphous texture, a dark-
brown to black color, and an organic odor should be designated as a
highly organic soil and shall be classified as peat, PT.

• Organic clay or silt( group symbol OL or OH):

− “The soil’s liquid limit (LL) after oven drying is less than 75 % of its
liquid limit before oven drying.” If the above statement is true, then
the first symbol is O.
− The second symbol is obtained by locating the values of PI and LL
(not oven dried) in the plasticity chart.

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3.8 Borderline Cases (Dual Symbols)
For the following three conditions, a dual symbol should be used.
• Coarse-grained soils with 5% - 12% fines.
− About 7 % fines can change the hydraulic conductivity of the coarse-grained
media by orders of magnitude.
− The first symbol indicates whether the coarse fraction is well or poorly graded. The
second symbol describe the contained fines. For example: SP-SM, poorly graded
sand with silt.

• Fine-grained soils with limits within the shaded zone. (PI

between 4 and 7 and LL between about 12 and 25).
− It is hard to distinguish between the silty and more claylike materials.
− CL-ML: Silty clay, SC-SM: Silty, clayed sand.

• Soil contain similar fines and coarse-grained fractions.

− possible dual symbols GM-ML
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3.8 Borderline Cases (Summary)

(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981) 14

4. American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials system (AASHTO)

Origin of AASHTO: (For road construction)

This system was originally developed by Hogentogler and Terzaghi in 1929 as
the Public Roads Classification System. Afterwards, there are several revisions.
The present AASHTO (1978) system is primarily based on the version in 1945.
(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

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4.1 Definition of Grain Size
No specific
grain size-use
Atterberg
limits

Boulders Gravel Sand Silt-Clay

Coarse Fine

75 mm No.4 No.200
4.75 mm 0.075
No.40 mm
0.425 mm

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4.2 General Guidance
• 8 major groups: A1~ A7 (with several subgroups) and organic soils A8
• The required tests are sieve analysis and Atterberg limits.
• The group index, an empirical formula, is used to further evaluate soils
within a group (subgroups).

A1 ~ A3 A4 ~ A7

Granular Materials Silt-clay Materials

≤ 35% pass No. 200 sieve ≥ 36% pass No. 200 sieve
Using LL and PI separates silty materials Using LL and PI separates silty materials
from clayey materials (only for A2 group) from clayey materials

• The original purpose of this classification system is used for road

construction (subgrade rating).
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4.3 Group Index
The first term is determined by the LL

GI = (F200 − 35)[0.2 + 0.005(LL − 40)]

+ 0.01(F200 − 15)(PI − 10)
The second term is determined by the PI

For Group A-2-6 and A-2-7

GI = 0.01( F200 − 15)(PI − 10) use the second term only
F200: percentage passing through the No.200 sieve

In general, the rating for a pavement subgrade is inversely

proportional to the group index, GI.

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4.4 Classification

Das, 1998 19
 4.4 Classification (Cont.)

Note: The first group from the left to fit the test data is the correct
AASHTO classification. Das, 1998
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 Passing No.200 = 86%
4.4 Example LL=70, PI=32
LL-30=40 > PI=32
Passing No.200= 86% GI = (F200 − 35)[0.2 + 0.005( LL − 40)]
LL=70, PI=32 + 0.01(F200 − 15)(PI − 10)
LL-30=40 > PI=32 = 33.47 ≅ 33 Round off A-7-5(33)

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5. Suggested Homework

1. Please read Book

2. Read ASTM D2487 and D 2488.
3. Please go over Examples

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6. References
Main References:
Das, B.M. (1998). Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 4th edition, PWS Publishing
Company. (Chapter 3)
Holtz, R.D. and Kovacs, W.D. (1981). An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering,
Prentice Hall. (Chapter 3)
Others:
Santamarina, J.C., Klein, K.A., and Fam, M.A. (2001). Soils and Waves, John Wiley &
Sons, LTD.

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