02/04/23

NATURAL AND ADDED IMPURITIES IN TEXTILES NATURAL AND ADDED IMPURITIES IN TEXTILES
The basic objective of pre-treatment processing is Impurities and Compositions of Cotton:-

Removal of added or natural impurities present in textile fibres to improve the absorbency. Impurity Average American Egyption
α-cellulose 88-96% 91% 90.8%
This prepares the textile substrate for downstream processes like dyeing, printing, finishing Pectines 0.7-1.2% 0.53% 0.68%
Proteins 1.1-1.9% NA NA
etc. Waxes, Fatty 0.4-1.0% 0.35% 0.42%
acids
Improvement in absorbency brings about
Ash 0.7-1.6% 0.12% 0.25%
Improved comfort Moisture 6-8% 6-8% 6-8%
Other (coloring 1-4% 1-4% 1-4%
Improved downstream processing matter etc.)

Impurities and Compositions of Raw Wool:-

Keratin 33%
Dirt 26%
Suint 28%
Fat 12%
Mineral Matter 1%

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Dr. Madan Regar Dr. Madan Regar

IMPURITIES AND COMPOSITIONS OF BAST FIBRES:- PREPARATION FOR COTTON

The chemical composition of some of the Bast fibres in dry state are given as below:-
The main objectives of the preparatory processes of textile materials are as follows:
Bast Cellul Hemic Lignin Pectin Wax Ash Other Remove the impurities from the fibers, both natural as well as added impurities as it may
Fibres ose ellulo s
ses interfere in subsequent processes of dyeing or finishing applications.
Jute 71.5 13.3 13.1 0.2 0.6 1.0 0.3
Flax/L 71.2 18.6 2.2 2.0 2.3 1.3 2.6 • Improve the capability of the fibers to absorb water solutions of dyes and
inen
Hemp 74.4 17.9 3.7 0.9 0.8 - 2.3
chemicals.
Ramie 76.2 14.6 0.7 2.1 0.3 - 6.1 • Impart proper required brightness or whiteness to the fibers according to need,
especially when brilliant or pastel shades are desired.
• Impart dimensional stability to thermoplastic textile materials.
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PREPARATION FOR COTTON SINGEING

The main objectives of the preparatory processes of textile materials are as follows:
Singeing usually involves passing/exposing one or both sides of a fabric over a gas flame to
burn off the protruding fibers.
Chemical treatments that enable the textile
The temperature of the flame is quite high, hence the fabric is passed over the flame at a high
chemist to make grey textile material absorbent
speed such that loose protruding fibres are burnt off but the fabric itself remains undamaged.
are called ‘Preparatory’ processes. Ordinarily,
with reference to cotton textiles, processes such
Heat or the temperature is therefore a key parameter in singeing.
as desizing, scouring and bleaching come under
this category. Sometimes, the process of Three different types of machine can achieve singeing. These are-
mercerizing too is included as one of the • Hot plate singeing machine
preparatory processes, through the purpose and However, the above sequence can be • Roller singeing machine
effects of this process are entirely different. changed according to individual fabric • Gas singeing machine
requirement

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Dr. Madan Regar Dr. Madan Regar

SINGEING SINGEING
Hot plate singeing machine Roller singeing machine:–

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SINGING
Gas singeing machine:–
• Tension Roller: It gives the tension and removes creases from the fabric. SIZING
• Brushing Roller: It has set of brushing roller to remove loose thread dust, dirt and metal
particles and deliver these impurities to the dust bag. Spacing between these rollers can be A very thin film of the starch, binders and softeners is applied to the
adjusted depending upon the thickness of the fabric.
warp yarn surface. This thin film of starch makes single ply spun
• Burner: Set of the burner is used for burning the protruding fibres. The width of burner
can be adjusted according to the fabric width.
yarn. The typical sizing agents used are natural starch (maize,
• Exhaust Fan: It sucks the burning fibre potatweavableo, wheat, tapioca, rice, arrowroot, sago) and modified
and smoke and transferred to outside
the process house. starch derivatives, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), carboxymethylcellulose
• Cooling Roller: The water cooled
rollers are used to cool the fabric (CMC), guar gum etc.
coming out from the flame, thus
avoiding the change of sticking the
fabric on the roller and prevents it
from becomes harsh.

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Dr. Madan Regar Dr. Madan Regar

DESIZING Removal of impurities DESIZING

In general the impurities from textile substrates can be removed by following
Desizing is the process of removal of size material applied on warp threads of a fabric
processes:
to facilitate the process of weaving. Size forms a stiff, hard and smooth coating on warp
• Solubilization: Increase in solubility of a poorly water–soluble substance with
yarns to enable them to withstand the cyclic tensions during weaving and reduce
surface-active agents.
breakage.
• Emulsification
It is also called Steeping.
• Chemical breakdown by Hydrolysis
Objects of Desizing: Oxidation

• To remove the starch material from the fabric. Methods of desizing:-

The methods of desizing may be classified as follows:
• To increase the absorbency power of the fabric. Hydrolytic desizing
(1) Acid desizing
• To increase the affinity of the fabric to the dry chemicals. (2) Rot desizing
• To make the fabric suitable for the next process. (3) Enzyme desizing
Oxidative desizing
• To increase the luster of the fabric increase of dyeing and printing. (1) Chlorine desizing
(2) Chlorite desizing

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(3) Bromite desizing

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DESIZING DESIZING
Methods of desizing:- Methods of desizing:-
(1) Rot Desizing: - This is the oldest and cheapest method of desizing. Here no special 2. Acid desizing: - it is done in presence of mineral acids. i.e. sulphuric acids and phosphoric
acids. The acids hydrolyse the starch present in the sized fabric.
chemical is used. The cloth is first immersed in detergent and warm water at (30- 45oC) A (0.5 to 1%) solution of the acid at 45oC, is sufficient for this process. The cloth is
and then immediately passed through a padding mangle to give 100% expression. The impregnated with the dilute solution in a two bowl or three bowl padding mangle as shown in fig

cloth is then piled in a tank and allowed to stand for 24 hours. The cloth is finally The 1-4 linkage can be broken by acid hydrolysis also.
washed with water, when most of the starch is removed from the fabric.Bacteria which Mineral acids are used.
• H2SO4/HCl- (5-10 gpl) is needed at 400C for 3-4
naturally present in water, under these conditions produce enzymes which in turn hours.
• Above 400C & 10 gpl acid concentration,
degrade the starch.
degradation of cotton cellulose itself may occur.
• Steeping in water at 30-40C, starch swells • The fabric is padded with acid solution and stored
• Swollen starch is attacked by enzymes (batched).
secreted by microorganisms in environment • Action of acid will result in gradual degradation of starch. But not all starch is degraded to the
• Hydrolyzed starch is removed by normal extent where it all becomes water soluble.
washing • Hence the action of acid will result in fabric having a range of starch molecular weights. Some with
• Low capital investment high water solubility, some with medium and some with poor or no solubility.
• Slow, low reproducibility, risk of cellulose • Hence desizing should always be followed with hot water washing to remove maximum amount of
being attacked starch.

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DESIZING DESIZING
Methods of desizing:- (B)Oxidative Methods of desizing:-
3 Enzyme desizing: - Enzymes are specific biocatalysts of organic origin which are produced by In oxidative desizing, the size is removed by oxidative degradation.
living organisms found in living cells and accelerate chemical reactions. Enzymes are named for their It is particularly useful when the size is based either on a synthetic polymer like PVA (poly vinyl
activity and because starch is composed of long chain amylose molecules, they are named amylases..
Malt Amylase has two components: alcohol) or is a mixture of synthetic and natural polymers.
α & β - Amylase (Ratio 1:5 to 1:6) Hydrolytic desizing in case of natural starch but is does not remove sizes based on synthetic
α- Amylase attacks the chain at random
β -Amylase attacks the chain end & produces maltose polymers

Enzyme Temp.
pH
Enzyme pH Temp. product (°C) Following oxidative agents are used in oxidative desizing:
(Amylose) Aquazym® PS 85-115 5.5-6.5 • Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
Malt 4.5 – 5.5 55 – 65OC Aquazym® SD 20-85 5.5-6.5
Pancreatic 6.8 – 7.5 40 – 55 OC • Sodium bromite (NaBrO2)
Bacterial 6.5 – 7.5 65 – 100 OC
• Sodium and potassium persulphate (Na 2S2O8, K 2S2O8
• Sodium chlorite (NaClO2)
High temperature enzymatic desizing • Peroxy mono sulphuric acid (H2SO5)
Novozymes, an enzyme producing major, introduced an alkaline amylase with a broad activity spectrum, capable
of application over the pH range 5-10 and from 20-85°C.
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SCOURING
PROCESS OF SCOURING:
After desizing the cloth still contains fats and waxes (both natural and added), due to the presence of
which the cloth becomes non absorbent. These are removed from the cloth by scouring, also called The scouring can be done in following
kiering, keir boiling, boiling out etc. The vessel in which this is done is called a ‘kier’. ways: -
1) Kier and J-Box when scouring is to be
This consists in circulating hot alkaline liquors containing a detergent through a regularly packed done in rope form
column of desized cloth usually under pressure for a prolonged period. 2) Open width pad roll system when open
The main processes occurring during scouring are width treatment is required
Ø Saponification of fats into water soluble soap and water miscible glycerin and under
alkaline conditions
Ø Hydrolysis of proteins into water soluble degradation products
Ø Dissolution or hydrolysis to ammonia of simpler amino compounds
Ø Conversion of pectose and pectin into their soluble salts
Ø Dissolution of mineral matter
Ø Emulsification of unsaponifiable oils and waxes
Ø Removal of dirt particles from the keir liquor by the detergent present their in.

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DESIZING SCOURING
J-Box is another important machinery for scouring and
is termed as this because the shape of machine
2) Open width pad roll system when open width treatment is required
resembles to the letter J. The fabric is treated with the
Open width or pad roll process is another method but here the fabric passes in full width and hence
alkali solution before it enters the J-Box. The fabric is
passed in the rope form and evenly piled up and then prevents the rope markings on the fabric. The time required for the processing is 90-150 minutes and
treated with steam for about 60-90 minutes. The the temperature is 97-99ºC but the concentration of the alkali is 5% on the wt of the fabric.
scouring time being less the concentration of the alkali The fabric in its full width is passed through a trough, which has a large number of the bottom and
top rollers and is full of scouring solution, after squeezing the fabric is moved to the reaction
solution is as high as 4-5%. The process of the J-Box
chamber. The reaction chamber has two types of steam pipes. One is used for direct heating other is
scouring can be made continuous by taking out the
scoured fabric from one end and at the same time used for indirect heating. The direct heating is used for rise of temperature and indirect heating is
feeding up of the unscoured fabric from the other end. used for maintaining the temperature.
The fabric after being squeezed off from the rollers
passes through pre heater where the cold fabric is
being conditioned to the temperature of the machine as
this help in good scouring. In the saturator the fabric is
impregnated in the scouring solution. The fabric is
piled up evenly in the U shape structure of the J-Box
and exposed to stem for about 60-90 minutes at about
95-97˚C. The steam being condensed is drained off.
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BLEACHING BLEACHING
The objective of bleaching is to destroy this natural or acquired color to bring the textiles in a Classification of bleaching agents:-
white state. Bleaching agents can be broadly divided into two groups-
Oxidative Type Bleaching agents
This may be necessary when: Reducing Type Bleaching agents
Enzyme aided Bleaching
• The fabric has to be supplied in white colour
• It needs to be dyed in pastel shades
• It needs to be printed Oxidative Type bleaching agents- Reducing bleaching agents-
• If the fabric is to be dyed in dark shades, then bleaching becomes an optional process. • Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) • Sulphur dioxide(SO2)
• Calcium hypochlorite Ca(OCl)Cl • Sodium sulphite(Na2SO3)
Motes - Cellulose of low crystallinity • Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) • Sodium hydrosulphite(Na2S2O4)
Object of Bleaching agent:-
swell in alkali & became sodium • Sodium peroxide (Na2O2) • Sodium Sulphoxylate
• To produce uniform and permanent whiteness.
cellulosate which is water soluble. • Sodium Perborate NaBO2H2O23H2O formaldehyde
• To remove the residual impurities of cotton fabric. Residual motes are destroyed in • Sodium Percarbonate (NaHSO2CH2O2H2O)
• To increase the absorbency of the fabric. bleaching. 2Na2CO33H2O2
• Peracetic Acid CH3COOOH
In case of cotton, the motes or the seed coat fragments are visible on woven or knitted fabrics • Sodium Chlorite NaClO2
after scouring. These appear as specks of brown or black colors on fabric surface. The color
of these motes is also destroyed by bleaching

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BLEACHING BLEACHING
Bleaching with sodium Hypochlorite (NaOCl): Bleaching with sodium Hypochlorite (NaOCl):
NaOCl is sodium salt of Hypochlorus acid (HOCl). It can be prepared by passing
chlorine gas in a solution of NaOH or by electrolysis of NaCl solution (aqueous). It can be easily seen that rate of oxidation at
Sodium hypochlorite is a strong oxidising agent, with a redox potential of 1400- around pH 7 is the highest. This means cotton can
1550 mV. Cl2 acts as an oxidising agent in presence of water (moisture) only. Dry degrade as the rate of consumption of available
chlorine gas does not have oxidising power. chlorine is quite high. Hence pH-7 is an unsafe
zone for bleaching.
NaOCl + H2O NaOH + HOCl
Hypochlorous acid

HOCl HCl + O ( Nascent oxygen)

NaOCl + HCl NaCl + HOCl

HOCl + HCl H2O + Cl2 (av. Cl2)

Colouring Matter + O Colourless Matter

The conditions like concentration, pH, time etc influence bleaching process in a major way.
Generally, cotton is bleached with NaOCl solution containing 1-3 gpl available chlorine at room
temperature in the pH range 9.5-11.
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BLEACHING MERCERIZATION
Object of Mercerizing:-
Removal of residual hypochlorite
• Increasing Tensile Strength
Residual hypochlorite remains in the fabric is removed partly by washing and partly by
• To Increase Tear Strength
treatment with a dilute solution of sodium thiosulphate (hypo) or bisulphite (this
• To Give Dimensional Stability
treatment is known as antichlor).
• Softer Handle
Alternatively, the washing fabrics are treated with dilute mineral acid (this treatment is
• Crease Resistance
known as antichlor).
• Increasing Affinity of Dyeing
Alternatively, the washing fabrics are treated with dilute mineral acid (this treatment is
• Improve Luster of The Fibre
known as souring).
• Improvement in Appearance

Mercerization is a process of impregnating the textile material with a concentrated solution of cold
NaOH, keeping it in contact with this cold solution for a given time with or without tension, and
subsequently rinsing it

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MERCERIZATION MERCERIZATION
Mechanism Mercerization-
• Mercerization causes swelling in fibre
• Swelling causes Cross-section to become rounder, loss of convolutions & de-twisting
leading to more lustrous surface
• Opening of fibre structure
• Increase in amorphous content due to de-crystallization
• Although mercerization is accompanied by swelling, it is more closely related to
internal modification of fiber.
• Effect is observed at 18-24 % w/w NaOH solutions.
• Higher no of –OH groups available as compared to un-mercerized cotton
• Higher moisture regain, dye-uptake and reactivity
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