★ Expert System

An expert system is a computer program that is designed to solve complex

problems and to provide decision-making ability like a human expert. It performs
this by extracting knowledge from its knowledge base using the reasoning and
inference rules according to the user queries.

The expert system is a part of AI, and the first ES was developed in the year 1970,
which was the first successful approach of artificial intelligence. It solves the most
complex issue as an expert by extracting the knowledge stored in its knowledge
base. The system helps in decision making for compsex problems using both facts
and heuristics like a human expert. It is called so because it contains the expert
knowledge of a specific domain and can solve any complex problem of that
particular domain. These systems are designed for a specific domain, such as
medicine, science, etc.

The performance of an expert system is based on the expert's knowledge stored in

its knowledge base. The more knowledge stored in the KB, the more that system
improves its performance. One of the common examples of an ES is a suggestion of
spelling errors while typing in the Google search box.

Below is the block diagram that represents the working of an expert system:

Below are some popular examples of the Expert System:

 ○ DENDRAL: It was an artificial intelligence project that was made as a
chemical analysis expert system. It was used in organic chemistry to detect
unknown organic molecules with the help of their mass spectra and
knowledge base of chemistry.

○ MYCIN: It was one of the earliest backward chaining expert systems that was
designed to find the bacteria causing infections like bacteraemia and
meningitis. It was also used for the recommendation of antibiotics and the
diagnosis of blood clotting diseases.

○ PXDES: It is an expert system that is used to determine the type and level of
lung cancer. To determine the disease, it takes a picture from the upper body,
which looks like the shadow. This shadow identifies the type and degree of
harm.

○ CaDeT: The CaDet expert system is a diagnostic support system that can
detect cancer at early stages.

Characteristics of Expert System

○ High Performance: The expert system provides high performance for solving
any type of complex problem of a specific domain with high efficiency and
accuracy.

○ Understandable: It responds in a way that can be easily understandable by

the user. It can take input in human language and provides the output in the
same way.

○ Reliable: It is much reliable for generating an efficient and accurate output.

 ○ Highly responsive: ES provides the result for any complex query within a
very short period of time.

Components of Expert System

An expert system mainly consists of 5 components:

○ User Interface
○ Inference Engine
○ Knowledge Base
○ Explanation component
○ Acquisition component

1. User Interface

With the help of a user interface, the expert system interacts with the user, takes
queries as an input in a readable format, and passes it to the inference engine. After
getting the response from the inference engine, it displays the output to the user. In
other words, it is an interface that helps a non-expert user to communicate with
the expert system to find a solution.

2. Inference Engine(Rules of Engine)

○ The inference engine is known as the brain of the expert system as it is the
main processing unit of the system. It applies inference rules to the knowledge
base to derive a conclusion or deduce new information. It helps in deriving an
error-free solution of queries asked by the user.
○ With the help of an inference engine, the system extracts the knowledge from
the knowledge base.
○ There are two types of inference engine:
○ Deterministic Inference engine: The conclusions drawn from this type of
inference engine are assumed to be true. It is based on facts and rules.
○ Probabilistic Inference engine: This type of inference engine contains
uncertainty in conclusions, and based on the probability.

Inference engine uses the below modes to derive the solutions:

○ Forward Chaining: It starts from the known facts and rules, and applies the
inference rules to add their conclusion to the known facts.
○ Backward Chaining: It is a backward reasoning method that starts from the
goal and works backward to prove the known facts.

3. Knowledge Base

○ The knowledgebase is a type of storage that stores knowledge acquired from

the different experts of the particular domain. It is considered as big storage of
knowledge. The more the knowledge base, the more precise will be the Expert
System.
○ It is similar to a database that contains information and rules of a particular
domain or subject.
○ One can also view the knowledge base as collections of objects and their
attributes. Such as a Lion is an object and its attributes are it is a mammal, it is
not a domestic animal, etc.

Components of Knowledge Base

 ○ Factual Knowledge: The knowledge which is based on facts and accepted by
knowledge engineers comes under factual knowledge.

○ Heuristic Knowledge: This knowledge is based on practice, the ability to

guess, evaluation, and experiences.

Knowledge Representation: It is used to formalize the knowledge stored in the

knowledge base using the If-else rules.

Knowledge Acquisitions: It is the process of extracting, organizing, and structuring

the domain knowledge, specifying the rules to acquire the knowledge from various
experts, and store that knowledge into the knowledge base.

Explanation component: It has the role to explain the problem-solving strategy to

the user. The solutions must be reproducible by the user and engineer but can only
be verified by the human expert: which facts were asked for? why? which facts
were vital? and can go as far as, how would the conclusion change if some facts
would change?

Acquisition component: It provides support for structuring and implementation of

the knowledge in the knowledge base; hence, it is very important because it allows
the engineer to concentrate less on the programming. Knowledge data should be
easy to enter, easy to understand methods of representing all info in knowledge
base, syntax checks, and access to programming language.

Development of Expert System

Here, we will explain the working of an expert system by taking an example of

MYCIN ES. Below are some steps to build an MYCIN:

○ Firstly, ES should be fed with expert knowledge. In the case of MYCIN,

human experts specialized in the medical field of bacterial infection, provide
information about the causes, symptoms, and other knowledge in that domain.
 ○ The KB of the MYCIN is updated successfully. In order to test it, the doctor
provides a new problem to it. The problem is to identify the presence of the
bacteria by inputting the details of a patient, including the symptoms, current
condition, and medical history.

○ The ES will need a questionnaire to be filled by the patient to know the

general information about the patient, such as gender, age, etc.

○ Now the system has collected all the information, so it will find the solution
for the problem by applying if-then rules using the inference engine and using
the facts stored within the KB.

○ In the end, it will provide a response to the patient by using the user interface.

Advantages of Expert System

○ These systems are highly reproducible.

○ They can be used for risky places where the human presence is not safe.

○ Error possibilities are less if the KB contains correct knowledge.

○ The performance of these systems remains steady as it is not affected by

emotions, tension, or fatigue.

○ They provide a very high speed to respond to a particular query.

Limitations of Expert System

○ The response of the expert system may get wrong if the knowledge base
contains the wrong information.
 ○ Like a human being, it cannot produce a creative output for different
scenarios.

○ Its maintenance and development costs are very high.

○ Knowledge acquisition for designing is much difficult.

○ For each domain, we require a specific ES, which is one of the big limitations.

○ It cannot learn from itself and hence requires manual updates.

Applications of Expert System

○ In designing and manufacturing domain

It can be broadly used for designing and manufacturing physical devices such
as camera lenses and automobiles.

○ In the knowledge domain

These systems are primarily used for publishing the relevant knowledge to the
users. The two popular ES used for this domain is an advisor and a tax
advisor.

○ In the finance domain

In the finance industries, it is used to detect any type of possible fraud,
suspicious activity, and advise bankers that if they should provide loans for
business or not.

○ In the diagnosis and troubleshooting of devices

In medical diagnosis, the ES system is used, and it was the first area where
these systems were used.
 ○ Planning and Scheduling
The expert systems can also be used for planning and scheduling some
particular tasks for achieving the goal of that task.

★ Difference between expert system and conventional system

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EXPERT SYSTEM AND CONVENTIONAL

SYSTEM

The principle distinction between expert systems and traditional problem solving
programs is the way in which the problem related expertise is coded. In
conventional applications, problem expertise is encoded in both program and data
structures. In the expert system approach all of the problem related expertise is
encoded in data structures only, none is in programs.

Generally in expert systems, the use of knowledge is vital. But in conventional

system data is used more efficiently than knowledge. Conventional systems are not
capable of explaining a particular conclusion for a problem. These systems try to
solve in a straight forward manner. But expert systems are capable of explaining
how a particular conclusion is reached and why requested information is needed
during a process. However, the problems are solved more efficiently than a
conventional system by an expert system.
Generally in an expert system, it uses the symbolic representations for knowledge
i.e. the rules, different forms of networks, frames, scripts etc. and performs their
inference through symbolic computations. But conventional systems are unable to
express these terms. They just simplify the problems in a straight forward manner
and are incapable to express the “how, why” questions. Also the problem solving
tools those are present in expert system are purely absent in conventional systems.
The various types of problems are always solved by the experts in an expert system.
So the solution of the problem is more accurate than a conventional system.

Conventional System vs. Expert System

Conventional System Expert System

Knowledge and processing are Knowledge database and the

combined in one unit. processing mechanism are two
separate components.

The programme does not make errors The Expert System may make a
(Unless error in programming). mistake.

The system is operational only when The expert system is optimized on an

fully developed. ongoing basis and can be launched
with a small number of rules.

Step by step execution according to Execution is done logically &

fixed algorithms is required. heuristically.

It needs full information. It can be functional with sufficient or

insufficient information.
Capabilities of the Expert System

○ Advising: It is capable of advising the human being for the query of any
domain from the particular ES.

○ Provide decision-making capabilities: It provides the capability of decision

making in any domain, such as for making any financial decision, decisions in
medical science, etc.

○ Demonstrate a device: It is capable of demonstrating any new products such

as its features, specifications, how to use that product, etc.

○ Problem-solving: It has problem-solving capabilities.

○ Explaining a problem: It is also capable of providing a detailed description

of an input problem.

○ Interpreting the input: It is capable of interpreting the input given by the

user.

○ Predicting results: It can be used for the prediction of a result.

 ○ Diagnosis: An ES designed for the medical field is capable of diagnosing a
disease without using multiple components as it already contains various
inbuilt medical tools.

Types of Expert Systems in AI

● Rule-Based Expert Systems: These systems use a collection of rules to make

decisions. Rules are created by human experts and guide the system’s
reasoning process. An example is Mycin, an expert system for diagnosing
bacterial infections.
● Frame-Based Expert Systems: Frame-based expert systems use frame
representation to organize knowledge. Frames capture structured information
about entities and their attributes, allowing the system to reason about specific
instances. For example, an expert system for car insurance might use frames
to represent different types of coverage and associated costs.
● Fuzzy Expert Systems: Fuzzy expert systems handle imprecise or uncertain
data using fuzzy logic. This allows the system to reason with degrees of truth
rather than binary values. Fuzzy expert systems are useful in domains where
precise measurements are difficult or subjective, such as weather forecasting
or risk assessment.
● Neural Expert Systems: Neural expert systems utilize neural networks to learn
from data through training processes. Neural networks can recognize patterns
and make predictions based on input data. They are particularly effective in
areas such as image recognition and natural language processing.
 ● Neuro-Fuzzy Expert Systems: Neuro-fuzzy expert systems combine elements
of fuzzy logic and neural networks to make decisions based on both numerical
and linguistic information. These systems excel in complex domains where
uncertainty and imprecision are prevalent, such as financial forecasting or
traffic management.

Knowledge Representation Techniques in AI

Knowledge Representation is a key aspect of expert systems and involves

formalizing knowledge in a way that allows the system to reason and make
decisions. Several techniques are used for knowledge representation in AI. This
includes logical representation, semantic networks, frame representation, and
production rules.
​ Logical Representation involves using formal languages such as propositional
logic, first-order logic, and predicate calculus to represent facts and
relationships. This allows the system to apply logical reasoning to arrive at
conclusions. For example, an expert system in medical diagnosis might use
logical representation to infer a specific disease based on symptoms and
medical history.

​ Semantic Networks provide a graphical representation of concepts and their

relationships. Nodes represent concepts, while links depict relationships
between concepts. This technique is useful for representing hierarchical
structures and complex relationships. For instance, an expert system for
natural language processing might use a semantic network to represent the
relationships between words in a sentence.
 ​ Frame Representation involves organizing knowledge into frames that
represent objects, concepts, or situations with attributes and slots. Frames
capture structured information about entities in a domain and allow reasoning
based on these attributes and slots. An example of frame-based representation
is the use of frames to represent different car models, where each frame
contains attributes like colour, engine type, and price range.

​ Production rules are used in expert systems to represent knowledge in the

form of IF-THEN statements. These rules guide the system’s reasoning
process by specifying conditions and corresponding actions. For example, an
expert system for troubleshooting computer issues might have a production
rule that states: IF the computer does not start, THEN check the power supply.

Knowledge Representation in AI Examples

Knowledge representation in AI involves encoding information about the world in a

format that a computer system can utilise to solve complex tasks. Here are some

examples of knowledge representation in AI:

● Semantic Networks: In a graphical structure, relationships between objects are

represented. For example, a semantic network may illustrate that “cat” falls
under the category of “animal,” and “animal” is categorised as a subclass of
“living things.”
● Frames: Objects or concepts, along with their attributes and relationships, are
represented using frames. Consider a car, where the frame encompasses
attributes such as “color,” “manufacturer,” and “fuel type.”

● Rule-Based Systems: Knowledge is represented using a set of rules. For

medical diagnosis, a rule could state, “if a patient exhibits a high temperature
and cough, then they may have the flu.”

● Ontologies: To represent relationships between concepts in a specific domain,

ontologies are developed. In biology, for instance, an ontology might delineate
relationships between different species and their characteristics.

● Knowledge Graphs: Entities and their relationships are represented through

the construction of a knowledge graph. Google’s Knowledge Graph, for
instance, links entities like people, places, and things, offering context-aware
information in search results.

● First-Order Logic: Logical expressions are employed to represent knowledge.

For example, the statement “All humans are mortal” can be expressed as ∀x
(Human(x) → Mortal(x)).

● Probabilistic Graphical Models: Probabilistic relationships between variables

are represented using Bayesian networks. In medical diagnosis, a Bayesian
 network might articulate the probability of various symptoms given a specific
disease.

★ Inference Engine
Use of efficient procedures and rules by the Inference Engine is essential in
deducting a correct, flawless solution.

In case of knowledge-based ES, the Inference Engine acquires and manipulates the
knowledge from the knowledge base to arrive at a particular solution.

In case of rule based ES, it −

​ Applies rules repeatedly to the facts, which are obtained from earlier rule
application.
​ Adds new knowledge into the knowledge base if required.
​ Resolves rules conflict when multiple rules are applicable to a particular case.

To recommend a solution, the Inference Engine uses the following strategies −

​ Forward Chaining
​ Backward Chaining

Forward Chaining

It is a strategy of an expert system to answer the question, “What can happen

next?”

Here, the Inference Engine follows the chain of conditions and derivations and
finally deduces the outcome. It considers all the facts and rules, and sorts them
before concluding to a solution.

This strategy is followed for working on conclusion, result, or effect. For example,
prediction of share market status as an effect of changes in interest rates.
Backward Chaining

With this strategy, an expert system finds out the answer to the question, “Why this
happened?”

On the basis of what has already happened, the Inference Engine tries to find out
which conditions could have happened in the past for this result. This strategy is
followed for finding out cause or reason. For example, diagnosis of blood cancer in
humans.

Atificial intelligence expert system carries out the following activities:

● Interpretation: Applying high-level intelligence to draw conclusions based on data

● Prediction: Charting out probable outcomes and making projections
● Designing: Determining the best configurations, arrangements, and combinations based on
set criteria
● Planning: Helping the achievement of organizational goals by proposing a series of actions
● Monitoring: Observing actual outcomes and comparing them with standard or expected
behaviour
● Repairing: De-bugging, suggesting and implementing remedial steps
● Controlling: Undertaking overall governance of a system
● Diagnosis: Finding out causes of malfunction and detecting diseases
● Teaching: Aiding instruction and helping students in learning
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