BFC 32002 Hydrology

Chapter 1. Basic Concept of Hydrology

Prepared by:
Siti Nazahiyah Rahmat
Tan Lai Wai
Hartini Kasmin
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
• define hydrology.
• apply fundamental knowledge of hydrology particularly use in civil and
environmental engineering.
• apply water balance equation as the base of a modeling of hydrology
which covers processes of precipitation, evaporation, infiltration, runoff and
groundwater.
Hydrology

• Hydrology is a science that studies the availability

(sources of water) and movement of water in the earth.
• Hydrology is also defined as a science related to the
occurrence and distribution of natural water on the earth.
• As general, hydrology covers many types of water,
including transformation among liquid, solid and gas in
atmosphere, surface and subsurface land

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Global Water Statistics
Total water = 1.36 × 1018 m3
• Oceans and lakes (saltwater) 97.2%
• Ice and glaciers (fresh water) 2.15%
• Groundwater (fresh water) 0.64%
• Lakes and rivers (fresh water) 0.0085%
• Atm and biosphere (moisture) 0.00015%

Malaysia Water Statistics

Total water = 990 × 109 m3
• Lakes and rivers 566 × 109 m3
• Atm and biosphere(moisture) 360 × 109 m3
• Groundwater 64 × 109 m3

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Importance in managing:
1) Water resources, groundwater sources

Tahan River, Pahang Hot spring, Sungai Klah, Sungkai, Perak Water well drilling at Kg. Dewata,
Lahad Datu, Sabah

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2) Water supply management

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3) Managing floods/droughts, drainage & urban stormwater problems

Stormwater Management and Road Tunnel

(SMART), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Siberian meandering river

Storm drain receiving urban runoff

Urban Rural
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 Flood issues in Malaysia

Flood-prone areas

Types of floods in Malaysia:

a. monsoonal flood
b. flash flood
c. tidal flood
 Floods issues in Malaysia

Flood-prone areas
 Flash floods issues in Malaysia

Johor, Jan 2007 Kota Tinggi, April 2007

Kuala Lumpur, 2008

Kuala Lumpur, 2008 Kuantan, 2014
Flood management in Malaysia

Non-structural measures:
• Education: World Water Day: 22 March
• Drainage design guidelines: MSMAM
 Manual to design Urban Drainage for Malaysian System
(Hydrology, Hydraulic System)

Old version, book with

Urban Stormwater
• 20 volumes
Management Manual
for Malaysia (MSMA - • 48 chapters
Manual Saliran Mesra
Alam) –
https://www.water.gov.my/index.php/pages/view/887

New versions of
MSMA – download
softcopy

Now, there are 2

versions of MSMA
• MSMA 1st edition
• MSMA 2nd edition
Reference Manual to design Malaysian drainage –
Hydrology Procedures (Urban & Rural)

https://www.water.gov.my/index.
php/pages/view/660?mid=336
Definition

Water/Hydrological cycle is a continues process in which water is

evaporated from water surfaces and oceans, moves inland as
moist air masses, and produce precipitation if the correct
vertical lifting conditions exist. The precipitation that falls
from clouds onto the land surface of the earth is dispersed to
the hydrologic cycle via several pathways.

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Basic Water Cycle/
Hydrological Cycle

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Detail Hydrological Cycle

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Catchment/Watershed areas
Land area that topographically drains to a particular point
Catchment boundary

H Spring
I
G River
C
H O
L A
A River S
N Spring T
D A
Main River
L
A
R A
E R
A Lake River
River E
A

Spring

Sketch of Movement of Water on the Land Surface

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Typical Watershed/ Catchment Areas

Outlet

Outlet
a. Elongated shape b. Concentrated shape

Typical watershed areas

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Water balance
• In quantitative terms, hydrology cycle can be represented by
a closed equation which represents the principle of
conservation of mass, often referred to in hydraulics as the
continuity equation. And many forms of this expression, called
the water balance.
• Water balance equation is the base of a modeling of hydrology.

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Water balance/ budget

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Conceptual
General water balance equation
dS
= It − Ot represents conservation of mass
dt

Considering a reservoir as a hydrologic system, the water balance equation

over a period of time is
S = I − O

S = P − R − G − E − T

where, P = precipitation,
R = surface runoff,
G = groundwater flow,
E = evaporation,
T = transpiration,
S = change in storage in a specified time period

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Example 1.1
In April 2017, a 121-ha lake has 0.43 m3/s of inflow, 0.37 m3/s
of outflow, and total storage increase of 1.97 ha-m. A USGS
gage next to the lake recorded a total of 3.3 cm precipitation
for the lake for the month. Assuming that infiltration loss is
insignificant for the lake, determine the evaporation loss, in cm,
over the lake for the month.

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• Solving the water balance for inflow I and outflow Q in a lake
gives, for evaporation,
E = I – O + P – ΔS
 m3  30day  24hr  3,600sec 
0.43 1month   
sec  1month  1day  1hour  = 0.92m = 92cm
I=
 10,000m2 
(121ha ) 
 1ha 
 m3   30day  24hr  3,600sec 
0.37 (1month)   
sec   1month  1day  1hour  = 0.79m = 79m
Q= 
 10,000m2 
(121ha ) 
 1ha 

(1.97ha − m)
ΔS = = 0.0163 = 1.63cm P = 3.3 cm
(121ha )
E = 92 – 79 + 3.3 – 1.63 = 14.67 cm

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Example 1.2
A reservoir has the following inflow and outflows (in cubic meters) for the
first three months of the year. If the storage at the beginning of January is 65
m3, determine the storage at the end of March.

Month January February Mac

Inflow (m3) 3.5 5.7 8.3
Outflow (m3) 6.4 7.1 5.5

( I1 + I2 + I3 )/3 - (O1 + O2 + O3)/3 = S3 – S1 /3 months

(3.5 + 5.7 + 8.3)/3 – (6.4 + 7.1 + 5.5 )/3 = (S3-65)/3 months

(17.5-19) = S3 – 65 m3
-1.5 = S3 – 65 m3
S3 = 63.5 m3
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Example 1.3
A swimming pool (6 m  6 m  1.5 m) has a small leak at the bottom.
Measurements of rainfall, evaporation, and water level are taken daily for 10 days
to determine what should be done for repair. Estimate the average daily
leakage out of the swimming pool in cm3/day. Assume the pool is exactly 1.5 m
deep at the end of day 1.
Day Evaporation Rainfall Measured Level
(mm) (mm) (mm)
1 12.7 - 1,524
2 0 25.4
3 12.7 -
4 0 50.8
5 12.7 -
6 12.7 -
7 0 101.6
8 12.7 -
9 12.7 -
10 12.7 - 1,321

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day

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Example 1.4
The storage capacity in a reservoir at certain period is given as 9.5 ha-m.
The inflow and outflow of reservoir is recorded as 25 m3/s and 16.5 m3/s,
respectively. However, the inflow and outflow is changed to 20 m3/s and
22 m3/s, respectively after four (4) hours.

(a) Calculate change of storage capacity in the reservoir during the four
hours period.

(a) Calculate total storage at the end of four hours. Give

answers in cubic-meter.

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Solution
Example 1.5
An amount of 6 cm of water evaporates over a period of two days from
a vertical walled reservoir in a 250-ha catchment area. The reservoir
also receives storm water at a flow rate of 6 m3/s during this period.
Compute the volume of water released in ha-cm during the 2 days
period assuming the water level in the reservoir remains the same.
(Conversion unit: 1 ha = 10,000 m2).

BFC32002_Ch1/ZARINA'S 21
Solution
Depth of inflow:

𝑆 = I – O [1]
𝑡

Conversion unit 2
250 ha x 10,000 𝑚 = 2.5 × 106 𝑚2 [1]
1 ℎ𝑎
3
6 𝑚 × 86400 𝑠×2 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
𝑠 1 𝑑𝑎𝑦
I= = 0.41 m @ 41.47 cm [2]
2.5 × 106 𝑚 2

Therefore
I - E- O = S
41.47 − 6 − O = 0
O = 35.47 cm [2]

In cm-ha: O = 35.47 cm x 250 ha = 8,868 ha-cm

[2]
Hydrological Data
Includes rainfall depth, streamflow, evaporation,
temperature, wind speed, moisture, sunlight (solar radiation),
groundwater level, land use, topography, land slope.
• Rainfall depth - Department of Irrigation and Drainage
Malaysia (DID) and Malaysian Meteorological Department
• Meteorological data (evaporation, temperature, wind speed
and direction, solar radiation, and moisture content) -
Malaysia Meteorological Department (MMD) and DID

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Hydrological Data
• Stream-flow and water level - Department of Irrigation and
Drainage Malaysia (DID) and Department of Environment
(DOE) Malaysia
• Groundwater level - Minerals and Geoscience Department
Malaysia of Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment
• Landuse - Forestry Departments or Department of Survey
and Mapping Malaysia
• Physical characteristics of development area - Department
of Survey and Mapping Malaysia or Malaysian Remote
Sensing Agency

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On-line Hydrological data
http://h2o.water.gov.my/v2/fail/rhnc/index.html (link to overview the inventory of data location)

https://www.water.gov.my/index.php/pages/view/857 (link to buy data)

https://publicinfobanjir.water.gov.my/hujan/?lang=en
General Climate of Malaysia

Three main types of seasonal rainfall in Peninsular Malaysia are:

a. East coast: November to January with maximum rainfalls with June and
July driest months
b. Rest of Peninsular (except Southwest coastal area): maximum rainfall
occurs in October - November and secondary maximum rainfall in April -
May.
c. Southwest coast: October and November and March to May with
maximum rainfalls. February, June to July are driest months

Based on wind flow patterns, there are four seasons:

a. southwest monsoon (mid of May or early June to September),
b. northeast monsoon (early November to March), and
c. two shorter periods of inter-monsoon seasons.

Uniform temperature with high humidity.

Conclusion
• Hydrology is the science of water.
• It embraces the occurrence, distribution, movement
and properties of the waters of the earth.
• A mathematical accounting system may be
constructed for the inputs, outputs and water
storages of a region so that a history of water
movement over time can be estimated.

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Assignment 1

Q1. Are all types of water good for human consumption?

Q2. Define hydrologic cycle and discuss the impact of urbanization to the hydrologic cycle.

Q3. Do you know the source of river water? Give short explanation.

Q4. A catchment area has water issues throughout the year. During rainy season, although
the volume of water is adequate to fulfill the demand; it is sometimes too much and causes
flooding. Meanwhile, during dry season, water becomes insufficient. Provide a solution to
this issue.

Q5. Drainage area of the Sembrong river, Batu Pahat is 11,839 km2. If the mean annual
runoff is 144.4 m3/s and the average annual rainfall is 1.08 m, estimate the evaporation
losses of the area.
Answer: 0.7 m
Q6. A watershed with surface area of 3100 km2 received 170 cm of precipitation during a
one-year period. During the same year, the outflow was 50 m3/sec. Compute the amount of
water lost due to the combined effects of evaporation, transpiration and infiltration. Also
estimate the runoff from the watershed. Provide your answer in cm.
Answer: Total lost = 119 cm, R = 51 cm

Q7. A lake has an area of 15 km2. During a specific month, evaporation was 84 mm, average
inflow to the lake was 1.5 m3/s, the average outflow from the lake was 1.3 m3/s, and the
water level for the lake was observed to increased by 110 mm. Determine the precipitation
in mm during that month?
Answer: 159.44 mm

Q8. An amount of 4.5 cm of water is evaporated from a 150-hectare vertical walled reservoir
for two days period. Stormwater flows into the reservoir at a constant rate of 5.5 m3/s
during the period. Compute the volume of water released during the period if the water
level in the reservoir was the same at the beginning and at the end of the day. Give your
answer in hectare-cm.
Answer: O = 8829 ha-cm