Physical Layer

Lecture 3-ITU07308
Summary of OSI Model-Lecture 4
Digital and Analog Signals
 Analog Signal
▪ An analog signal is a continuous wave denoted by a sine wave
and may vary in signal strength (amplitude) or frequency (time).
▪ The sine wave's amplitude value can be seen as the higher and
lower points of the wave, while the frequency (time) value is
measured in the sine wave's physical length from left to right.

A sine wave
Another example of sine wave
 Examples of analogy Signals
There are many examples of analog signals around us. The sound
from a human voice is analog, because sound waves are
continuous, as is our own vision, because we see various shapes
and colors in a continuous manner due to light waves. Even a
typical kitchen clock having its hands moving continuously can be
represented as an analog signal.
 Characteristics of a Sine wave

➢ There are three characteristics of a sine wave:

▪ Amplitude
▪ Frequency
▪ Period
 Amplitude
▪ Amplitude: amplitude of a signal is the value of a signal at
any point on the wave. It is equal to the vertical distance from
a given point on the wave form to the horizontal axis.
▪ The maximum amplitude of analog wave is equal to the
highest value it reaches on the vertical axis
 Period and frequency
❑ Period : Period refers to the amount of time, in second, a signal
needs to complete one cycle.
❑ Frequency refer to number of periods in one second. The
frequency of a signal is its number of cycles per second.
 Units of Frequency

1 Hz

1 kHz = 1000 Hz

1 MHz = 1,000,000 Hz

1 GHz = 1,000,000,000 Hz

1 THz = 1,000,000,000,000 Hz
 Frequency and Change

The concept of frequency is similar to the concept of change.

▪ If a signal (or data) is changing rapidly, its frequency is

higher. If it changes slowly, its frequency is lower.

▪ When a signal changes 10 times per second, its frequency is 10

Hz; when a signal changes 1000 times per second, its
frequency is 1000 Hz.
Zero frequency and infinite frequency
 Analog data

Analog data is information that is continuous. Audio and video are

examples of analog data. The metaphor for analog data is that
analog data can be drawn on paper continuously without
interruption, that without lifting your pencil from the paper.
 Complex (Composite ) Analog Signal

Analog signal can be simple or composite. A complex (or

composite) signal is a combination of more than simple signal.

▪ In real life, complex signals are much more prevalent than

simple signal; a signal is usually composed of multiple signals.

▪ For example: a complex signal can have frequencies between

1kHz to 4kHz or between 10MHz and 70MHz

 Bandwidth
In complex signal, the bandwidth of a signal is the difference
between the highest frequency and the lowest frequency .
▪ For example, a signal that carries frequencies between 10kHz
and 50kHz has a bandwidth of 40kHz
▪ If the signal has a wide bandwidth, it means it is very
complex. It can contain all of the frequencies from the highest
frequency to the lowest frequency.
The bandwidth of the signal must match the bandwidth of the
media
 Example of Bandwidth

Consider a signal with a bandwidth of

10kHz. It contains frequencies between 0

and 10kHz.
 Two Familiar Signals
➢ A familiar signal in our daily lives is the electrical energy we use
at home and at work. The signal we receive from the power
company has an amplitude of 2400 V and a frequency of 50 Hz
(a simple analog signal).

➢ Another signal familiar to us is the power we get from a battery.

It is an analog signal with an amplitude of 6 V (or 12 or 24) and
a frequency of zero.
 Digital Signal

▪ A digital signal - a must for computer processing - is described

as using binary (0s and 1s), and therefore, cannot take on any
fractional values. Digital signals retain a uniform structure,
providing a constant and consistent signal.
▪ Because of the inherent reliability of the digital signal,
technology using it is rapidly replacing a large percentage of
analog applications and devices.
Equally, A digital signal uses discrete (discontinuous) values. By
contrast, non-digital (or analog) systems use a continuous range of
values to represent information. Although digital representations
are discrete, the information represented can be either discrete, such
as numbers or letters, or continuous, such as sounds, images, and
other measurements of continuous systems.
Example of Digital signal
Digital data

Digital Data presented in digital signal

Digital signal
 Bit interval and Bit rate
▪ Bit interval is the tine required to send one single bit
▪ Bit rate is the number of bit interval per second. This means that
bit rate is number of bits sent in one second
 Units of Bit Rate

1 bps

1 kbps = 1000 bps

1 Mbps = 1,000,000 bps

1 Gbps = 1,000,000,000 bps

1 Tbps = 1,000,000,000,000 bps

Transmission Modes
 Data Transmission
The transmission of binary data across the link can be accomplished
either in parallel mode or serial mode.
▪ Parallel mode multiple bits are sent in each clock pulse
▪ Serial mode one bit is sent with each clock pulse
 Parallel transmission

❑ In parallel transmission a group of bits are sent at once

 Serial transmission

❑ In serial mode one bit is sent at a time

 Parallel and Serial Conversions

Since communication within devices is parallel, conversion

devices are required at the interface between the sender and the

line (parallel-to-serial) and between the line and the receiver

(serial-to-parallel)
 Serial Transmission
Serial transmission occurs in one of two ways: Asynchronous and
synchronous transmission

In asynchronous transmission, we send 1 start bit (0) at the

beginning and 1 or more stop bits (1s) at the end of each byte. There
may be a gap between each byte.

▪ Asynchronous here means “asynchronous at the byte level,”

but the bits are still synchronized; their durations are the same.
Asynchronous Transmission
In synchronous transmission, we send bits one after another
without start/stop bits or gaps. It is the responsibility of the
receiver to group the bits.
Synchronous transmission
Transmission Media
Summary of Layer Functions
Transmission medium and physical layer
 Transmission Media
➢ Transmission media (communication Channel) is a pathway
that carries the information from sender to receiver. We use
different types of cables or waves to transmit data. Data is
transmitted normally through electrical or electromagnetic
signals.

➢ An electrical signal is in the form of current.

➢ An electromagnetic signal is series of electromagnetic energy

pulses at various frequencies. These signals can be transmitted
through copper wires, optical fibers, atmosphere, water and
vacuum.

➢ Different Medias have different properties like bandwidth, delay,

cost and ease of installation and maintenance.
The data transmission capabilities of various Medias vary differently
depending upon the various factors. These factors are:

➢ Bandwidth. It refers to the data carrying capacity of a channel

or medium. Higher bandwidth communication channels support
higher data rates.
➢ Radiation. It refers to the leakage of signal from the medium due
to undesirable electrical characteristics of the medium.
➢ Noise Absorption. It refers to the susceptibility of the media to
external electrical noise that can cause distortion of data signal.
➢ Attenuation. It refers to loss of energy as signal propagates
outwards. The amount of energy lost depends on frequency.
Radiations and physical characteristics of media contribute to
attenuation.
Classes of transmission media
 Guided Media

Guided media is defined as Wired or Bounded transmission

media. Signals being transmitted are directed and confined in
a narrow pathway by using physical links.

Guided media features:

➢ High Speed
➢ Secure
➢ Used for comparatively shorter distances
▪ Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from
one device to another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial
cable, and fiber-optic cable.
• A signal traveling along any of these media is directed and
contained by the physical limits of the medium.
• Twisted pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper)
conductors that accept and transport signal in the form of
electrical current.
• Optical Fiber is a glass or plastic cable that accepts and
transports signal in the form of light.
 Twisted Pair Cable
▪ Twisted Pair Cable: It consists of 2 separately
insulated conductor wires wound about each other.
▪ Generally, several such pairs are bundled together in
a protective sheath.
▪ They are the most widely used Transmission Media.
Twisted-pair cable

Twisted Pair is of two types:

➢ Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
➢ Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
➢ This type of cable has the ability to block interference
and does not depend on a physical shield for this
purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.

Advantages:
➢ Least expensive
➢ Easy to install
➢ High speed capacity
Disadvantages:
➢ Susceptible to external interference
➢ Lower capacity and performance in comparison to
STP
➢ Short distance transmission due to attenuation
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
This type of cable consists of a special jacket to block external
interference. It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and
data channels of telephone lines.

Advantages:
➢ Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to
UTP
➢ Eliminates crosstalk
➢ Comparitively faster
Disadvantages:
➢ Comparitively difficult to install and manufacture
➢ More expensive
➢ Bulky
UTP and STP cables

▪ Advantages of UTP are its cost, and easy of use. UTP is cheap,
flexible and easy to install.

▪ Higher grades of UTP are used in many LANs technologies,

including Ethernet and Token Ring

7.46
▪ The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) has developed
standards to grade UTP cables by quality.
▪ Categories are determined by cable quality, with 1 as lowest and
7 as the highest.
▪ Each EIA category is suitable for a certain use and not others.

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cable is most certainly by far the

most popular cable around the world. UTP cable is used not only for
networking but also for the traditional telephone (UTP-Cat 1). Of
the seven categories, UTP-CAT5e is the most popular UTP cable.
Categories of unshielded twisted-pair cables
UTP connector
 Coaxial Cable
➢ Coaxial Cable is the cable that has an outer plastic covering
containing 2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated
protection cover.
➢ Coaxial cable transmits information in two modes:
▪ Baseband mode (dedicated cable bandwidth)
▪ Broadband mode (cable bandwidth is split into separate
ranges).

➢ Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial

cables.
Coaxial cable
Advantages:
➢ High Bandwidth
➢ Better noise Immunity
➢ Easy to install and expand
➢ Inexpensive

Disadvantages:
➢ Single cable failure can disrupt the entire
network
 Categories of coaxial cables

BNC connectors
 Optical Fibre Cable
➢ Optical fibre cable uses the concept of reflection of
light through a core made up of glass or plastic. The
core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic
covering called the cladding.
➢ It is used for transmission of large volumes of data.
Fiber Construction
Optical Fiber

➢ Light is the form of electromagnetic energy. It travels

at its fastest in vacuum: 300, 000km/s. The speed of
light depends on the density of the medium through
which it is travelling (the higher the density , the
slower the speed)
Refraction and Reflection

➢ Light travels in straight line as long as it is moving

through a single uniform substance.
➢ If a ray of light travelling through one substance
suddenly enters another (more or less dense)
substance, its speed changes abruptly, causing the ray
to change direction. This change is called Refraction
• A beam of light moving from a less dense into a more dense
medium is bent toward the vertical axis.
• A beam of light moving from a more dense into a less dense
medium, it bends away from vertical axis.
• If the angle of incidence (measured from vertical) is increased,
the angle of refraction increases.
• Critical angle is reached when the angle of refraction is 90
• Reflection occurs when the angle of incidence is greater than
Critical angle
Refraction and Reflection
Propagation modes
Modes
Fiber types
Advantages:
➢ Increased capacity and bandwidth
➢ Light weight
➢ Less signal attenuation
Disadvantages:
➢ Difficult to install and maintain
➢ High cost
➢ Fragile
 Unguided Media: Wireless
➢ Wireless or Unguided Media or Unbound
Transmission Media : Unbound transmission media
are the ways of transmitting data without using any
cables.
➢ These media are not bounded by physical geography.

➢ Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves

without using a physical conductor.
➢ This type of communication is often referred to as
wireless communication.
 Features of Unguided Media

➢ Signal is broadcasted through air

➢ Less Secure

➢ Used for larger distances

Electromagnetic Spectrum
Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication
Wireless transmission waves
 Radio waves

➢ Radio waves are used for multicast communications,

such as radio and television, and paging systems.
➢ These are easy to generate and can penetrate through
buildings.
➢ The sending and receiving antennas need not be
aligned. Frequency Range: 3KHz – 1GHz. AM and
FM radios
 Microwaves
➢ Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as
cellular telephones, satellite networks,
and wireless LANs.
➢ It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving
antennas need to be properly aligned with each other.
➢ The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the
height of the antenna.
➢ Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. These are majorly used for
mobile phone communication and television distribution.
 Infrared signals

➢ Infrared waves are used for very short distance (short-

range) communication, in a closed area using line-of-
sight propagation.
➢ They cannot penetrate through obstacles. Frequency
Range: 300GHz – 400THz.
➢ It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard,
printer, etc.