sensors

Communication
Low-Cost IoT-Based Sensor System: A Case Study on Harsh
Environmental Monitoring
Ali Imam Sunny 1 , Aobo Zhao 1 , Li Li 1, * and Sambu Kanteh Sakiliba 2

1 Nuclear AMRC, Advanced Manufacturing Park, Brunel Way, Rotherham S60 5WG, UK;
[email protected] (A.I.S.); [email protected] (A.Z.)
2 Solartech-UK Ltd., 11 Llansannor Drive, Cardiff, Wales CF10 4BW, UK; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are promising technologies for exploiting in harsh envi-
ronments such as can be found in the nuclear industry. Nuclear storage facilities can be considered
harsh environments in that, amongst other variables, they can be dark, congested, and have high
gamma radiation levels, which preclude operator access. These conditions represent significant
challenges to sensor reliability, data acquisition and communications, power supplies, and longevity.
Installed monitoring of parameters such as temperature, pressure, radiation, humidity, and hydrogen
content within a nuclear facility may offer significant advantages over current baseline measurement
options. This paper explores Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS) components to comprise an installed
Internet of Things (IoT)-based multipurpose monitoring system for a specific nuclear storage situation
measuring hydrogen concentration and temperature. This work addresses two major challenges of
developing an installed remote sensing monitor for a typical nuclear storage scenario to detect both
hydrogen concentrations and temperature: (1) development of a compact, cost-effective, and robust
multisensor system from COTS components, and (2) validation of the sensor system for detecting
temperature and hydrogen gas release. The proof of concept system developed in this study not only
demonstrates the cost reduction of regular monitoring but also enables intelligent data management



through the IoT by using ThingSpeak in a harsh environment.



Citation: Sunny, A.I.; Zhao, A.; Li, L.; Keywords: low-cost sensor; energy harvesting; wireless sensor network; IoT; harsh environment;
Kanteh Sakiliba, S. Low-Cost
condition monitoring
IoT-Based Sensor System: A Case
Study on Harsh Environmental
Monitoring. Sensors 2021, 21, 214.
https://doi.org/10.3390/s21010214
1. Introduction
Received: 10 November 2020 According to the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (NDA), on 1 April 2016 the
Accepted: 23 December 2020 total amount of radioactive waste is estimated to be 4.77 million m3 [1]. This increasing
Published: 31 December 2020 amount of waste material, which needs to be stored, treated, and disposed of in a proper
manner, presents a great number of technical and temporal challenges for the nuclear
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neu- industry [2]. In the decommissioning site at Cumbria, United Kingdom, the majority of
tral with regard to jurisdictional clai- the country’s nuclear wastes are currently stored on site. Depending on the type and
ms in published maps and institutio- radioactivity, varying storage strategies are applied within this site. One of the legacy
nal affiliations. storage facilities at Sellafield requires extraction of the historic Magnox Swarf, which is
followed by packaging the material for interim storage before the final processing of the
geological disposal. Over many decades of interim storage, a monitoring system needs
Copyright: © 2020 by the authors. Li-
to be implemented in order to predict the correct chemical evolution of the waste, which
censee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
is mainly affected by the release of hydrogen gases and heat dissipation. This requires
This article is an open access article
an assurance monitoring scheme in order to make sure that the hydrogen emissions and
distributed under the terms and con- temperature of radioactive waste are well within the accepted parameter ranges.
ditions of the Creative Commons At- The Internet of Things (IoT) is composed of numerous inter-related and interconnected
tribution (CC BY) license (https:// devices, machines, and objects sharing data over a network aimed at reaching a common
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ goal [3]. Being an enabling technology of Industrial Revolution 4.0, the goal of the IoT is to
4.0/). allow things and objects to be connected anytime and anywhere with anyone using any

Sensors 2021, 21, 214. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21010214 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2021, 21, 214 2 of 12

network, path, and service. Nowadays, the IoT is offering innovative solutions through
advanced sensing technologies for major industries, e.g., healthcare services, the food
supply chain, mining production, transportation and logistics, and firefighting [4]. The
nuclear industry is no exception. One of the crucial aspects of the IoT is data management.
Intelligent data management and data processing within the IoT system through the help
of advanced Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques [5,6] will further enhance the nuclear
waste management productivity, safety and durability.
The primary parameters of interest in the condition monitoring of legacy nuclear
waste containers are temperature variation and hydrogen gas release rate. Innovative ways
to efficiently monitor these parameters from every container utilizing wireless data transfer
could provide a greater level of safety assurance over a longer period of time. Numerous
research projects have been carried out on Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) for varying
applications, but the main difference with respect to the gaseous sensors used in WSNs
is the power consumption. Some investigations are focusing on the implementation of a
WSN-based air monitoring system. Each reported solution varies in the type of sensors
tailored for the individual case for the purpose of optimizing power consumptions. To
the best of the authors’ knowledge, there are no existing cost-effective devices that have
been developed for the nuclear waste storage application. Different energy harvesting
techniques have also been applied to develop such systems such as shown in Wang et al. [7].
They developed a wireless sensor network system where a solar panel is mounted on the
sensor node, harvesting constant energy and providing adequate power to the sensors. A
study on low-power Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) sensors has been carried out in order to
address the energy issues [8]. Furthermore, a reduction in power consumption has been
adopted based on the duty cycle measurements using off-the-shelf sensors [9,10]. In addi-
tion, other low-power sensor systems have shown huge potential in harsh environmental
conditions [11–15]. However, none of these sensors have taken into consideration the
extreme environmental effects when deployed in real scenarios, such as high temperatures,
release of hazardous gases, or changes in atmospheric conditions. Moreover, all of the
aforementioned systems require bulky equipment to be connected in order to extract data.
The purpose of this paper is to develop a low-cost, compact, multimodal characteri-
zation sensor system with the current state-of-the-art, Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS)
components. The IoT could provide an installed remote measurement system on each
legacy nuclear waste container, thus providing a real-time understanding of the condition
of the entire nuclear waste storage content deployed for in-situ or ex-situ measurements. In
the paper, we have focused on the characterization of the sensors’ behaviors and firmware
optimization. The outcome is a qualitative estimation of the gas concentration, which is
essential to discriminate the small changes that will be presented as a result of changes in
chemical reaction rates.
The paper is organized as follows: Section 2 describes the sensing principles, the
sensor selection, and the proposed integration, followed by a description of the sensor
calibration. Section 3 outlines the experimental setup. Section 4 presents the results and
discussions. Finally, in Section 5, the conclusions and the future development perspectives
are described.

2. Methods and Measurement Principles

This section presents the measurement principles and approach for implementing
the robust sensing system. As low power consumption, along with cost effectiveness, is
the main target, this section will delve more into how the COTS components have been
selected in building a low-cost prototype sensor to demonstrate the concept for the nuclear
waste storage application.

2.1. Sensing Principle and Circuitry

The sensor system is implemented by integrating multiple sensors with supplementary
modules, such as energy harvesting, battery, charging circuit, and wireless communication
Sensors 2021, 21, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 13

2.1. Sensing Principle and Circuitry

Sensors 2021, 21, 214 3 of 12
The sensor system is implemented by integrating multiple sensors with supplemen-
tary modules, such as energy harvesting, battery, charging circuit, and wireless commu-
nication for an Internet Gateway, to achieve real-time monitoring of the environmental
parameters,
for an Internet e.g., H2, pressure,
Gateway, temperature,
to achieve real-timeand humidity,
monitoring of as
theshown in Figureparameters,
environmental 1. The sen-
sor
e.g.,system is constructed
H2 , pressure, with harsh-environment-resistive
temperature, and humidity, as shown in Figuresensors1.andTheprovides accurate
sensor system is
constructed with
measurement for harsh-environment-resistive sensors and provides
essential parameters in the environment. The energy accurate measurement
harvesting module
for essential
supplies the parameters
system withinthethenecessary
environment. Thewhich
power, energy harvesting
extends moduleofsupplies
the lifetime the
the system
system with the necessary power, which extends the lifetime of the system
and reduces the need for maintenance in long-term operation over decades. The wireless and reduces the
need for maintenance
communication modulein provides
long-termaoperation
connectionover decades.
to the cloudThe wireless
server via thecommunication
Internet gate-
module
way, provides
enabling a connection
real-time monitoringto the
andcloud server via the
decision-making withInternet
the aid gateway, enabling
of Artificial Intelli-
real-time
gence monitoring and decision-making with the aid of Artificial Intelligence (AI).
(AI).

Figure 1. System block diagram for the sensing setup.

The sensors used in the project are in the MQ family along with the Bosch Sensortec
BME680. To achieve the sensing and monitoring function, the system is constructed using
two solar
solar panels
panelsfor forenergy
energyharvesting
harvesting with
witha chargeable
a chargeable battery andand
battery a power management
a power manage-
circuit,circuit,
ment a hydrogen sensorsensor
a hydrogen MQ-8,MQ-8,
a multifunction environment
a multifunction environmentsensorsensor
BME680, a Wi-Fia
BME680,
Module ESP8266EX, and a Wemos organic light-emitting diode
Wi-Fi Module ESP8266EX, and a Wemos organic light-emitting diode (OLED) display. (OLED) display. The circuit
connectivity can be seen in Figure 2. The power lines deliver the electricity
The circuit connectivity can be seen in Figure 2. The power lines deliver the electricity from the energy
harvesting
from and the
the energy power management
harvesting and the power module to the sensors
management module andto the
the communication
sensors and the
communication module, which is shown as blue lines in Figure 2. The data
module, which is shown as blue lines in Figure 2. The environment are collected
environment data
in two
are forms:inanalogue
collected two forms:data and digital
analogue data.
data and The data.
digital digital
The data are data
digital transmitted via I2 C
are transmitted
buses,
via I2C shown as brown
buses, shown as lines.
brownThe Serial
lines. TheClock
SerialLine
Clock(SCL)
Lineis(SCL)
sent by ESP8266EX
is sent as a clock
by ESP8266EX as
signal and the Serial Data Line (SDA) as a bidirectional data signal. The
a clock signal and the Serial Data Line (SDA) as a bidirectional data signal. The analogue analogue data are
collected
data directly using
are collected theusing
directly ADCthe (Analog
ADC to Digital)
(Analog toport of the
Digital) microcontroller,
port which is
of the microcontroller,
shown as pink lines. Then, the ESP8266EX module can send the data
which is shown as pink lines. Then, the ESP8266EX module can send the data to the base to the base station via
Sensors 2021, 21, x FOR PEER REVIEW
self-contained Wi-Fi protocol. The specifications of the components are introduced 4 in
of the
13
station via self-contained Wi-Fi protocol. The specifications of the components are intro-
following section.
duced in the following section.

2.2. Sensor Integration

The power management is carried out by the solar panels and stored in the recharge-
able battery for the operation of the entire system. The environmental data is collected by
the Bosch Sensortec BME680, which is an environment sensor for gas, humidity, temper-
ature, and pressure detection, and by MQ-8 sensors, and is transmitted to the local area
network via Wi-Fi by ESP8266EX.

2.2.1. Sensor Selection

Using a single sensor not only simplifies the system design but also reduces the en-
ergy consumption for environmental monitoring. However, there is no integrated sensor
commercially available for sensing hydrogen gas together with other environmental pa-
rameters. Thus, the two sensors used in this system, namely MQ-8 and BME680, are suit-
able for monitoring the temperature and hydrogen release rate to prove the concept.

Figure 2. The sensor circuit wiring diagram.

Figure 2. The sensor circuit wiring diagram.

MQ-8 is a H2 detection sensor selected for its high sensitivity and is also able to detect
a variety of other hydrogen-containing gases (e.g., nitrogen or air) [16]. The sensor uses
stannic oxide (SnO2) as the sensing material, which has lower electrical conductivity
within clean air. When the concentration of hydrogen gas increases, the conductivity of
Sensors 2021, 21, 214 4 of 12

2.2. Sensor Integration

The power management is carried out by the solar panels and stored in the recharge-
able battery for the operation of the entire system. The environmental data is collected by
the Bosch Sensortec BME680, which is an environment sensor for gas, humidity, temper-
ature, and pressure detection, and by MQ-8 sensors, and is transmitted to the local area
network via Wi-Fi by ESP8266EX.

2.2.1. Sensor Selection

Using a single sensor not only simplifies the system design but also reduces the
energy consumption for environmental monitoring. However, there is no integrated
sensor commercially available for sensing hydrogen gas together with other environmental
Figure 2. The sensor circuit wiring diagram.
parameters. Thus, the two sensors used in this system, namely MQ-8 and BME680, are
suitable for monitoring the temperature and hydrogen release rate to prove the concept.
MQ-8 is a H2 detection sensor selected for its high sensitivity and is also able to detect
MQ-8 is a H2 detection sensor selected for its high sensitivity and is also able to
a variety of other hydrogen-containing gases (e.g., nitrogen or air) [16]. The sensor uses
detect a variety of other hydrogen-containing gases (e.g., nitrogen or air) [16]. The sensor
stannic oxide (SnO2) as the sensing material, which has lower electrical conductivity
uses stannic oxide (SnO2 ) as the sensing material, which has lower electrical conductivity
within clean air. When the concentration of hydrogen gas increases, the conductivity of
within clean air. When the concentration of hydrogen gas increases, the conductivity of the
the material
material increases.
increases. Then,Then, the variation
the variation in gas in gas concentration
concentration within
within the the environment
environment can be
converted from the conductivity change using a simple circuit, as shownshown
can be converted from the conductivity change using a simple circuit, as in Figure
in Figure 3. A
3. A heater
heater voltagevoltage
(VH ) (V H) is introduced to supply a DC or an AC current to heat the sensor
is introduced to supply a DC or an AC current to heat the sensor to
to working
working temperature.
temperature. VCVisC aisDC
a DC power
power source
source forfor convertingthe
converting theconductivity
conductivitychange
change
totoaavoltage
voltagesignal
signalwith
withthethepresence
presenceofofaaload
loadresistance
resistanceRR,L,which
L
whichisisininseries
serieswith
withthe
the
sensor. V L is the voltage of load resistance RL and can be connected to an amplifier circuit
sensor. VL is the voltage of load resistance RL and can be connected to an amplifier circuit
asasshown
shownininFigure
Figure3.3.

Figure3.3.MQ-8
Figure MQ-8circuit
circuitdiagram.
diagram.

BME680 is
BME680 is selected
selected as aa 4-in-1-sensor
4-in-1-sensorthat
thatcan
canmeasure
measure barometric
barometric pressure, relative
pressure, rel-
humidity,
ative ambient
humidity, temperature,
ambient and gas and
temperature, concentration. The package
gas concentration. is just
The 3.0 × 3.0
package is ×just
0.93
mm
3.0 ×3,3.0
enabling
× 0.93amm 3 , enabling
compact design. Another advantage
a compact of this sensor
design. Another is itsof
advantage low temperature
this sensor is
coefficient
its offset (TCO)
low temperature [17]. Theoffset
coefficient sensor provides
(TCO) [17].digital data via
The sensor I2C or a digital
provides Serial Peripheral
data via
I2Interface (SPI)Peripheral
C or a Serial and operates with low
Interface current
(SPI) consumption
and operates (microamps)
with low at a sampling
current consumption
(microamps)
rate of 1 Hz. at a sampling rate of 1 Hz.

2.2.2. Power Management

The sensor circuit can be operated at a very small current (approximately 5–20 mA)
and 5 V DC, however, most of the current in this case is consumed by the heater circuit
(around 45 mA). The used photovoltaics panel is able to deliver about 6.2 V and up to
300 mA, which is connected as an unregulated power source, through the battery to the
ground and voltage input. Hence, a built-in regulator is employed to supply the sensor
 2.2.2. Power Management
The sensor circuit can be operated at a very small current (approximately 5–20 mA)
and 5 V DC, however, most of the current in this case is consumed by the heater circuit
Sensors 2021, 21, 214 (around 45 mA). The used photovoltaics panel is able to deliver about 6.2 V and up to 300
5 of 12
mA, which is connected as an unregulated power source, through the battery to the
ground and voltage input. Hence, a built-in regulator is employed to supply the sensor
with constant 5 V. The DC–DC converter that is already embedded in the ESP8266EX
with constant 5 V. The DC–DC converter that is already embedded in the ESP8266EX
Board converts the circuit voltage to 3.3 V. The power of the circuit (without the Hydrogen
Board converts the circuit voltage to 3.3 V. The power of the circuit (without the Hydrogen
sensor) is 0.1 W. Therefore, the energy for one day is about 2.4 Wh/day, assuming that the
sensor) is 0.1 W. Therefore, the energy for one day is about 2.4 Wh/day, assuming that
power is on for 24 h. The MQ-8 sensor uses 0.5 W of power due to the embedded heater;
the power is on for 24 h. The MQ-8 sensor uses 0.5 W of power due to the embedded
hence, the energy for one day is 12 Wh/day. In short, the total power of the circuit includ-
heater; hence, the energy for one day is 12 Wh/day. In short, the total power of the circuit
ing the hydrogen
including sensorsensor
the hydrogen MQ-8MQ-8
is 0.6isW,
0.6and the total
W, and maximum
the total energy
maximum consumption
energy consumption is
14.4 Wh/day.
is 14.4 Wh/day.

2.2.3.
2.2.3. Communication
Communication Method Method and and Display
Display
There
There are
are several
several wireless
wireless communication
communication protocols
protocols supporting
supporting wireless
wireless sensing
sensing and
and
monitoring,
monitoring, e.g.,
e.g., Bluetooth
Bluetooth andand ZigBee.
ZigBee. TheThe advantage
advantage of of Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi is is that the sensor can be
directly
directly connected to a LAN and update the data to either a local local control
control center or a remote
remote
one through
one through the Internet. It is also supported
is also supported by ThingSpeak TM
TM [18] to aggregate, visualize,
[18] to aggregate, visualize,
and analyze live
and analyze livedata
datastreams
streamsininthe the cloud.
cloud. TheThe Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi Module
Module based based
on an onESP8266EX
an ESP8266EX chip
chip
offersoffers a complete
a complete Wi-Fi Wi-Fi networking
networking solutionsolution
and is and
also is alsoasused
used as a controller
a controller for the
for the sensors
sensors
and the andOLED thedisplay,
OLED display,
which is which is theMini
the Wemos Wemos Mini D1
D1 OLED. OLED.
This module Thiswas
module
used was
as a
used
displayas module
a display module
with withModule
the Wi-Fi the Wi-Fi
basedModule
on thebased on the providing
ESP8266EX, ESP8266EX, providing a
a user-friendly
user-friendly setup and
setup and debugging debugging interface.
interface.
A serial communication
A serial communication protocol protocol with
with aa baud
baud rate
rate of
of 115,200
115,200 is set and the device is
connected to
connected to the
the Internet
Internet with
with aa pre-set
pre-set Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi Service
Service Set
Set Identifier
Identifier (SSID)
(SSID) and
and password.
password.
Rather than
Rather than implementing
implementing aa classical
classical PC-based
PC-based user
user interface,
interface, our our aim
aim is
is to
to let the user
access the data
access data everywhere
everywhere and, at the same time, increase the portability of the complete
system. With
system. With a ThingSpeak
ThingSpeak private account and an Application Programming Interface
(API) address,
address, aTransmission
a TransmissionControlControlProtocol
Protocolconnection
connection is then
is thenestablished between
established the
between
ESP8266EX and ThingSpeak cloud and the data can be monitored
the ESP8266EX and ThingSpeak cloud and the data can be monitored on the ThingSpeak on the ThingSpeak API
website,
API as shown
website, in Figure
as shown 4. The
in Figure 4. sensor datadata
The sensor shown are prior
shown to calibration.
are prior to calibration.

Figure
Figure 4.
4. Example
Exampleofofdata
datarepresentation through
representation thethe
through Application Programming
Application Interface
Programming (API)
Interface (API)
provided by the open application platform Thingspeak.com.
provided by the open application platform Thingspeak.com.

2.3. Sensor Calibration

The sensitivities of most sensors degrade over long-term operation when meeting the
actual performance criterion. Hence, calibration is required to make the acquired sensor
dataset more accurate. Generally, the result is ambiguous when the sample exerts more
than one gas if it can sense both of the gases. To differentiate or to sense in a more efficient
and better way, a new and advanced sensor is needed. The MQ-8 sensor is designed in such
Sensors 2021, 21, 214 6 of 12

a way that it can recognize the number of gases simultaneously. The MQ family sensors
are capable of measuring the concentration and substances that co-exist in a mixture. In
the calibration process, we used a voltage sensor to adapt a voltage result of the gas
sensor [19]. The first formula is used in [20], showing it is nonlinear for the sensor with gas
concentration (1):

− β
R/R0 = 1 + k gas Cgas (1)
where R is the sensor resistance, R0 is the sensor resistance, Cgas the concentration of the
used gas, β is the law of the characteristic power of the sensor, and kgas is the gas constant.
The formula shows a power function with a negative exponent as:

y = mxn , n < 0 (2)

According to [20], the formula for measuring the clean air resistance with a known
supply voltage VCC and a load resistance R L of 10 kΩ can be found as:

R L (VCC − Vout )
Rclean_air = (3)
Vout

where
R L = Load resistance
VCC = Sensor supply voltage
Vout = Output voltage
Therefore, the sensor resistance R0 can be determined by the ratio of clean air resistance
and air ratio as stated as below:
R
R0 = clean_air (4)
airratio
Rclean_air is the sensor reference resistance for clean air. airratio = 9.56 and represents a
constant of the MQ-8 sensor.
If ppm is the gas concentration in parts per million, then according to nonlinear
regression, the output equation of the sensor is:
n
R gas

ppm = m (5)
R0

R gas
 
log( ppm) = logm + nlog (6)
R0
R gas
logm+nlog( R0 )
ppm = 10 (7)
In the equations, Rgas is the sensor resistance in the presence of gas. The subscript gas
stands for certain gases where H2 is hydrogen. From the datasheet, there is no formula pro-
vided for each gas type of MQ sensor. Using the datasheet’s graphical representations [16],
we extracted the formula of gas and this is shown in Figure 5.

We used the MQ-8 sensor to extract the points on the graph (log ppm H2 = logm +
RH
nlog( R02 )) for H2. A set of points was extracted using WebPlotDigitizer to get a mathematical
model that matches the data. Figure 6a shows the sensitivity curve, which shows the VRL in
hydrogen with different concentrations and that the resistance load RL is 10 kΩ, and Figure
6b shows the long-term stability curve. The response graphs of the sensor provided by the
manufacturer are plotted under standard conditions [16]. It provides the baseline of the
characterizations for different practical applications, in this case, nuclear waste storage.
Sensors 2021, 21, 214 7 of 12
Sensors 2021, 21, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 13

Figure 5. WebPlotDigitizer plotting for the MQ-8 sensor to extract the point for H2.

We used the MQ-8 sensor to extract the points on the graph (l𝑜𝑔(𝑝𝑝𝑚𝐻2 ) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑚 +
𝑅𝐻2
𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑔( )) for H2. A set of points was extracted using WebPlotDigitizer to get a
𝑅0
mathematical model that matches the data. Figure 6a shows the sensitivity curve, which
shows the VRL in hydrogen with different concentrations and that the resistance load RL is
10 kΩ, and Figure 6b shows the long-term stability curve. The response graphs of the
sensor provided by the manufacturer are plotted under standard conditions [16]. It
provides the Figure
baseline of the characterizations
Figure5.5.WebPlotDigitizer
WebPlotDigitizer plotting for
plottingfor
for different
the
the practical
MQ-8sensor
MQ-8 sensor applications,
totoextract
extract thepoint
the inHthis
pointfor
for H2.
2.

case, nuclear waste storage.

We used the MQ-8 sensor to extract the points on the graph (l𝑜𝑔 𝑝𝑝𝑚 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑚 +
𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑔( )) for H2. A set of points was extracted using WebPlotDigitizer to get a mathe-
matical model that matches the data. Figure 6a shows the sensitivity curve, which shows
the VRL in hydrogen with different concentrations and that the resistance load RL is 10 kΩ,
and Figure 6b shows the long-term stability curve. The response graphs of the sensor pro-
vided by the manufacturer are plotted under standard conditions [16]. It provides the
baseline of the characterizations for different practical applications, in this case, nuclear
waste storage.

4
4 RL=10k 400ppm H2(RL=10k )
3
3
(a) (b)
2
Figure6.
Figure 6.Sensor 2
Sensorcharacteristics:
characteristics: (a)the
(a) thesensitivity
sensitivitycurve;
curve;(b)
(b)the
thelong-term
long-termstability
stabilitycurve
curve [16].
[16].

1formulas,the 1
Similarly, theSimilarly, formulas,
shown shown
in Table in be
1, can Table 1, can
found be found experimentally
experimentally by properly by properly
calibrating the MQ-8 sensor for a 1000 ppm
calibrating the MQ-8 sensor for a 1000 ppm H2 concentration H concentration in air of
2 in air and a value andRLaof
value of RL of
about010 KΩ (5 KΩ to 33 KΩ). 0
about 10 KΩ (5 KΩ 0to 33 KΩ).
500 1000 1500 2000 0 500 1000 1500 2000
Hydrogen(ppm)
Table 1. Formula obtained Time(days)
for the MQ-8 sensors for measuring different gases [16].
Table 1. Formula obtained for the MQ-8 sensors for measuring different gases [16].
(a) (b)
Gas = logm + nlog( Rclean
log( ppm𝑹)𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒏−𝒂𝒊𝒓 R0
− air
)
Gas 𝐥𝐨𝐠(𝒑𝒑𝒎) = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒎 + 𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒈( )
Figure 6. Sensor characteristics:
H2 (a) the sensitivity curve; (b) logm =𝑹−𝟎4.23 and
the long-term stability curve [16].
n = 3.09
𝑯𝟐 LPG 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑚 = −4.23 𝑎𝑛𝑑 logm 𝑛 = 3.09
= −2.53 and n = 1.88
𝑳𝑷𝑮 CH 4
Similarly, the formulas, shown𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑚 = −2.53
in Table 𝑎𝑛𝑑
1, can 𝑛found
belogm = 1.88
=− 2.55 and n = 2.26by properly
experimentally
𝑪𝑯𝟒
calibrating the MQ-8 COsensor for a 1000 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑚ppm= −2.55 𝑎𝑛𝑑 logm
𝑛 = 2.26
H2 concentration = −7.36 and
in air n =a6.48
and value of RL of
𝑪𝑶 Alcohol 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑚 = −7.36 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 = −4.5 and n = 4.82
= 6.48
logm
about 10 KΩ (5 KΩ to 33 KΩ).
𝑨𝒍𝒄𝒐𝒉𝒐𝒍 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑚 = −4.5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 = 4.82
3.Table
Experimental
1. Formula Setup
obtained for the MQ-8 sensors for measuring different gases [16].
The system is designed to perform under harsh environmental conditions 𝑹𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒏 𝒂𝒊𝒓 and, in
Gas is supposed to be deployed
particular, the system 𝐥𝐨𝐠(𝒑𝒑𝒎) = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒎
within + 𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒈(site. The sensors
the nuclear )
𝑹𝟎
have been designed 𝑯𝟐 to be attached to legacy nuclear waste containers,
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑚 = −4.23 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 = 3.09 which have an
inner temperature ◦
between ~22 and 55 C at normal room temperature.
𝑳𝑷𝑮 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑚 = −2.53 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 =Additionally,
1.88 the
containers have a𝑪𝑯 relatively low external contact radiation dose rate that does
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑚 = −2.55 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 = 2.26 not cause any
𝟒
signal or data transmission
𝑪𝑶 interference [21]. However,
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑚the
= system at this
−7.36 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛= stage
6.48has not been
designed to be 𝑨𝒍𝒄𝒐𝒉𝒐𝒍 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑚 = −4.5
exposed to radiation, as it is in the conceptual 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛phase.
design = 4.82Therefore, no
 3. Experimental Setup
The system is designed to perform under harsh environmental conditions and, in
particular, the system is supposed to be deployed within the nuclear site. The sensors have
Sensors 2021, 21, 214 been designed to be attached to legacy nuclear waste containers, which 8have of 12 an inner
temperature between ~22 and 55 °C at normal room temperature. Additionally, the con-
tainers have a relatively low external contact radiation dose rate that does not cause any
signal or data transmission interference [21]. However, the system at this stage has not
shielding is required, and neither
been designed to beis exposed
a communication
to radiation,protocol
as it is inwith loss detection
the conceptual and
design re- There-
phase.
transmission. A 3D model
fore, rendering
no shielding image isand
is required, shown in is
neither Figure 7, which depicts
a communication thewith
protocol stacking
loss detection
and re-transmission.
up of the legacy nuclear A 3D model
waste containers withinrendering
the storageimage is shown
facilities. in Figure
The 7, which
containers have depicts the
four filters on thestacking up ofhydrogen
lid to vent the legacygas nuclear
to thewaste containers
ambient. within the
The sensors canstorage facilities.
be fixed in theThe con-
tainers
vicinity of the filters. have fourtofilters
Therefore, on the
replicate thelidscenario
to vent hydrogen gas to the ambient.
in a laboratory-based The sensors can
experiment,
be fixed in the vicinity of the filters. Therefore, to replicate
a small stainless steel cubic box was used for the validation of the multidetector sensor’s the scenario in a laboratory-
based experiment, a small stainless steel cubic box was used for the validation of the mul-
performance within the metal’s proximity.
tidetector sensor’s performance within the metal’s proximity.

Figure 7. Concept design for legacy nuclear waste containers containing the four filters. The filters are recessed and
Figure 7. Concept design for legacy nuclear waste containers containing the four filters. The filters
screwed into the box lid, which provides two pathways to each filter.
are recessed and screwed into the box lid, which provides two pathways to each filter.
Two scenarios are investigated:
Two scenarios are investigated:
• Scenario 1: Hot air flow test—pressure, gas, humidity, and temperature change in-
• Scenario 1: Hot air
sideflow
andtest—pressure, gas, steel
outside the stainless humidity, and atemperature
box under change
hot air flow to inside
monitor the tempera-
and outside the ture
stainless steel box under a hot air flow to monitor the temperature
variation;
variation; • Scenario 2: Hydrogen flow test—pressure, gas, humidity, and temperature change
• when a flow
Scenario 2: Hydrogen hydrogen flow is introduced
test—pressure, into the stainless
gas, humidity, steel box to sense
and temperature the hydrogen
change
when a hydrogenconcentration.
flow is introduced into the stainless steel box to sense the hydrogen
concentration. In scenario 1, the temperature change is undertaken with a hot air flow passing
In scenario through the surface of the sensor. Two conditions are tested individually: outside and
1, the temperature change is undertaken with a hot air flow passing
inside the stainless steel box, and on the cap of the stainless steel bottle. The hot air flow
through the surface of the sensor. Two conditions are tested individually: outside and
is induced by a DEWORX Original 2000 W Hot Air Gun, which has two heating levels
2021, 21, x FOR PEER REVIEW inside the stainless steel box, and on the cap of the stainless steel bottle.
(600 °C and 300 °C) and two flow rate levels (300 L/min and9 500
The
of 13 hot air flow
L/min). For both the inside
is induced by a DEWORX
and outside testing, the hot air gun is set to a fixed flow rate and held at alevels
Original 2000 W Hot Air Gun, which has two heating fixed distance
(600 ◦ C and 300 above
◦ C) and two flow rate levels (300 L/min and 500 L/min). For both the
the sensor with the hot air flow directly pointing to the sensor. This can be seen in
inside and outside testing,
Figure 8a. the hot air gun is set to a fixed flow rate and held at a fixed
The environmental parameters
distance above theare monitored
sensor duringair
with the theflow
process for analyzingtothetheinflu-
In scenario 2, ahot
hydrogen directly
gas bottle pointing sensor.
is used to generate This can
a hydrogen be in the
stream
ence of the hydrogen concentration increase.
seen in Figure 8a.metal container and increase the hydrogen concentration level inside. The stream is pro-
duced at ambient temperature and guided into the metal box. This is shown in Figure 8b.

(a) (b)
Figure 8. Experimental
Figure 8. Experimental validation
validation setup: setup: 1(a)
(a) scenario scenario
and 1 and 2.
(b) scenario (b) scenario 2.

Figure 9 below shows the overall sensor system prototype. The total size of the pro-
totype is only 3 cm high, 6 cm long, and 1.5 cm wide with the PTFE casing, which has a
Sensors 2021, 21, 214 9 of 12

In scenario 2, a hydrogen gas bottle is used to generate a hydrogen stream in the metal
container and(a) increase the hydrogen concentration level (b)inside. The stream is produced
at ambient temperature and guided into the metal box. This is shown in Figure 8b. The
Figure 8. Experimental validation
environmental setup: (a)are
parameters scenario 1 and during
monitored (b) scenario 2.
the process for analyzing the influence of
the hydrogen concentration increase.
Figure 9 below shows
Figure the overall
9 below shows sensor systemsensor
the overall prototype. Theprototype.
system total size ofThe
the total
pro- size of the
totype is only
prototype is only 3 cm high, 6 cm long, and 1.5 cm wide with the PTFE casing,a which has a
3 cm high, 6 cm long, and 1.5 cm wide with the PTFE casing, which has
temperaturetemperature
tolerance of tolerance
up to 250 of
°C,upused to protect
to 250 the
◦ C, used toelectrical components.
protect the electrical components.

Figure
Figure9.9.Compact
Compactrobust
robustmultisensor
multisensorsystem
systemprototype
prototypein
inaathermally
thermallyresistant
resistantPTFE
PTFEcase.
case.

4. Results and Discussion

4. Results and Discussion
This section evaluates the performance of the proposed system for analyzing the se-
lected parametersThis section
under evaluatesscenarios,
two different the performance
which areofexplained
the proposed system
below. for analyzing the
The results
obtained were processed in MATLAB and the varying characteristics of the sensor system The results
selected parameters under two different scenarios, which are explained below.
obtained were processed in MATLAB and the varying characteristics of the sensor system
are presented.
are presented.
4.1. Scenario 1: Hot Air Flow Test
4.1. Scenario 1: Hot Air Flow Test
The results were selected from 100 s before switching on the heater gun and then 280
The results were selected from 100 s before switching on the heater gun and then 280 s
s after, to give a steady reading. Ten individual tests were carried out and the results were
after, to give a steady reading. Ten individual tests were carried out and the results were
averaged statistically. The divisions of different tests were calculated as error bars. To
averaged statistically. The divisions of different tests were calculated as error bars. To
compare the trend of different parameters, these results were normalized by subtracting
compare the trend of different parameters, these results were normalized by subtracting
the average theandaverage
then dividing
and thenbydividing
the standardby the division
standardof the data of
division set.the
The results
data are results are
set. The
shown in Figure 10.
shown in Figure 10.
The results show that the
The results showtemperature increases when
that the temperature the hot
increases air gun
when switches
the hot air gunonswitches on
and starts toandfall after the gun is switched off. The pressure and gas results show the
starts to fall after the gun is switched off. The pressure and gas results show the same
trend as the same
temperature
trend aschange, as the pressure
the temperature change,drops
as more quickly drops
the pressure as the more
gun switches
quickly as the gun
off, followedswitches
by the gasoff,sensor
followedresults.
by the It gas
takes a longer
sensor timeItfor
results. theatemperature
takes longer time for to reset
the temperature
to a normal status due to the residual heat compared with pressure and gas. The humidity
to reset to a normal status due to the residual heat compared with pressure and gas. The
decreases during
humidity the decreases
increase in temperature
during and in
the increase increases whenand
temperature theincreases
temperature
whengoesthe temperature
goes down. This is because the humidity sensor measures the relative humidity of the
surrounding environment. When the temperature increases, the saturate water vapor
pressure increases, which decreases the relative humidity when the water vapor mass in
the air remains the same.
The results also suggest that the recovery of the humidity is slower than that of the
temperature. This is because the humidity sensor has a response time of 8 s, which means
it takes 8 s to reach 63% of the total humidity change.
For the test results inside the stainless steel box, the hot air gun is switched on from
0 and switched off at 100 s. The trend in temperature, humidity, and pressure changes
during the heating and cooling process are similar to the outside results, but in a slower
path. This is reasonable because the interaction between the inner environments is either
 Sensors 2021, 21, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 13
Sensors 2021, 21, 214 10 of 12

down. This is because the humidity sensor measures the relative humidity of the sur-
rounding
through theenvironment.
small windowWhen
or viathe
thetemperature increases,
heat interchange throughthethe
saturate waterNotably,
metal wall. vapor pres-
the
sure increases, which decreases the relative humidity when the water vapor mass in the
error bar between different tests is also smaller than the outside results for temperature
air remains
and pressurethe same.
measurement. It suggests that the inside measurement is more stable.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure10.
Figure 10. Scenario
Scenario 11 test
test results
results for
for both
both inside
inside and
and outside
outside the
thestainless
stainlesssteel
steelbox:
box:(a)(a)Temperature;
Temperature;(b)(b)
Humidity; (c)
Humidity;
Pressure; and (d) Air quality index.
(c) Pressure; and (d) Air quality index.

The results also suggest that the recovery of the humidity is slower than that of the
4.2. Scenario 2: This
temperature. Hydrogen Flow Test
is because the humidity sensor has a response time of 8 s, which means
it takes
This8test
s toshows
reach 63% of the totaldetection
the hydrogen humidity change.
characteristics in comparison with the other
For theIntest
parameters. theresults inside
test, the the stainless
hydrogen steel box,
stream started the hot
to blow air gun
inside is switched
the stainless onfrom
steel from
0 and
150 s andswitched off at 100
the parameter s. The
results trend
were in temperature,
recorded to 240 s. Thehumidity, and
results for thepressure
hydrogen changes
flow
during
test the heating
are shown and cooling
in Figure process
11, which is usedarefor
similar to the the
comparing outside results,change
parameter but in aduring
slower
path.
the This isinreasonable
increase hydrogen because the interaction
concentration with other between the inner
parameters. environments
As the parametersisareeither
in
through scales,
different the small theywindow
must beornormalized
via the heat to interchange through
fit in one figure the metal wall.
for comparison Notably,
as shown in
Equation
the error(8)barbelow:
between different tests is also smaller than the outside results for tempera-
ture and pressure measurement. It suggests that P − the
P inside measurement is more stable.
Pnorm = (8)
σ
where P stands for the parameter value, P is the mean of the parameter value in one test,
and σ is the standard division of the parameter value in one test.
 increase in hydrogen concentration with other parameters. As the parameters are in
different scales, they must be normalized to fit in one figure for comparison as shown in
Equation (8) below:
𝑃 − 𝑃̅
𝑃𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚 = (8)
𝜎
Sensors 2021, 21, 214 11 of 12
where P stands for the parameter value, 𝑃̅ is the mean of the parameter value in one test,
and 𝜎 is the standard division of the parameter value in one test.

Figure 11. Scenario 2 test results for the detection of H2 components in comparison with the other
Figure 11. Scenario 2 test results for the detection of H2 components in comparison with the other
environmental parameters.
environmental parameters.
It is shown that the hydrogen concentration level starts to increase as the stream
It is shown
starts, which thatthe
shows that the hydrogen
hydrogen concentration
sensor level starts
is working properly. At theto increase
same time, itas the stream starts,
shows a decrease in all other parameters. The decrease in temperature can be explained
which shows that the hydrogen sensor is working properly. At the same time, it shows
by the temperature decrease, which happens when the pressurized gas is released from
a decrease in all other parameters. The decrease in temperature can be explained by the
the bottle. As there is no water content in the hydrogen stream, the humidity also
temperature
decreased duringdecrease,
the process.which happens
The pressure when
seems the pressurized
to decrease gasincreasing
but is actually is released from the bottle.
Asdecreasing
and there is noduewater content in
to environmental the hydrogen stream, the humidity also decreased during
influence.
the process. The pressure seems to decrease but is actually increasing and decreasing due
5. Conclusions and Future Work
to environmental influence.
In this paper, we have presented a conceptual multisensor system that is able to
monitor the environmental parameters for nuclear waste storage containers or other harsh
5. Conclusions and Future Work
environmental applications. The proposed system architecture breaks down the IoT
structureIninto
thisfunctional
paper, blocks
we have presented
and provides a conceptual
simple multisensor
means of modularity betweensystem
the that is able to
layers. The approach
monitor is cost-effective,
the environmental consumes less
parameters forpower,
nuclearandwaste
is faster with respect
storage to
containers or other harsh
developing a new silicon
environmental sensor device.
applications. The research
The proposed also describes
system architecturethe calibration
breaks down the IoT struc-
methods for the MQ family of gas sensors for detecting leakage of H2 along with the
ture into functional blocks and provides simple means of modularity between the layers.
radiation-tolerant environmental monitoring sensor BME680. The formulae for calibration
of this approach
The is have
type of sensor cost-effective,
been extractedconsumes lessrepresentation
from the data power, and of is the
faster with respect to develop-
sensitivity
ing a new silicon sensor device. The research also describes the calibration methods for
curve. The sensor performs with higher sensitivity towards the desired parameter
the MQ family of gas sensors for detecting leakage of H2 along with the radiation-tolerant
environmental monitoring sensor BME680. The formulae for calibration of this type of
sensor have been extracted from the data representation of the sensitivity curve. The
sensor performs with higher sensitivity towards the desired parameter characterization
in a preset environment. For both the experiments of temperature monitoring and H2
flow testing, the measured parameters from the proposed sensor demonstrate the expected
results. The current system is self-powered by a solar cell from which the energy is stored
in a researchable battery. Other energy-harvesting techniques for indoor storage facilities,
e.g., from gamma radiation, ambient and transmitted radio frequency, conducted heat
from nearby containers, or a resonant magnetic field, should be investigated in the future.
In addition, the signal interference and electronics shielding in a radiation environment
should also be studied.
The robust sensing system provides an alternative way for in-situ online monitoring
of gaseous changes and future work will include the design of a radiation-shielded case
for sensors that can be readily deployed in a harsh environment. The work will enable
the installation and routine operation of a permanent monitoring solution for legacy
nuclear waste containers or any other radioactive waste containers, in order to support the
decommissioning strategy in the country. This paper has demonstrated the possibility of
using the IoT technology for inventory management in nuclear industries.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.I.S. and S.K.S.; Investigation, A.I.S. and A.Z.; Method-
ology, A.I.S.; Validation, S.K.S.; Visualization, A.I.S. and A.Z.; Writing—original draft, A.I.S. and
Sensors 2021, 21, 214 12 of 12

A.Z.; Writing—review and editing, A.I.S., A.Z., and L.L., Supervision, L.L. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data sharing not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank the Design and Prototyping Group of AMRC
for providing CAD design support.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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