A SN T

Level II
S tudy f^
u u r a i

Testi
second e
by W illiam Spauld

The American Society for Nj ndestructive Testing, Inc.

pi&S
Published by
The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
1711 Arlingate Lane
PO Box 28518
Columbus, OH 43228-0518

Copyright © 2002 by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. ASNT is not responsible for the
authenticity or accuracy of information herein. Published opinions and statements do not
necessarily reflect the opinion of ASNT. Products or services that are advertised or mentioned do not carry the
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ASNT exists to create a safer world by promoting the profession and technologies of nondestructive testing.

ISBN 1-57117-097-9

Printed in the United States of America

first printing 1999

second printing with revisions 10/02
 Contents

Introduction.......................................................................................................................................... v
Overview of the Study Guide ...................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................................ v
Recommended References ...........................................................................................................v
Resource Materials ........................................................................................................................ v

Overview of Ultrasonic Testing........................................

History of Ultrasonic Testing ......................................
Advantages and Limitations of Ultrasonic Testing . .
Principles of Ultrasonic Testing .................................
Generation and Characteristics of Ultrasound . . .
Acoustic Waves .................................................
Velocity, Wavelength and Frequency .............
Amplitude and Energy ...................................
Types of Waves (Modes) ........................................
Longitudinal Waves ........................................
Shear Waves .....................................................
Surface Waves .................................................
Lamb Waves .....................................................
Propagation of Ultrasound ...................................
Beam Spread .....................................................
Near Field (Fresnel)ZFar Field (Fraunhofer)
Attenuation .......................................................
Reflection ................................................................
Refraction ................................................................
Mode Conversion ...................................................
Ultrasonic Testing Equipment ......................................
Transmitters/Pulsers ...............................................
Clock Circuits/Time Base Generators ...........
Repetition Rate .................................................
Pulse Duration .................................................
Receivers (High Frequency Pulse Amplifiers) . . .
Power Supplies .......................................................
Displays ............................................................
Sweep/Gain Circuits ........................................
Sweep Delay ..............................................
Sweep Length ............................................
Gain ............................................................
A Scan Displays ..............................................
B Scan Displays ..............................................
C Scan Displays ..............................................
 Probes/Search Units ................................................................................................................9
Types of Probes ................................................................................................................9
Contact Probes ........................................................................................................... 9
Immersion Probes (Flat and Focused) ....................................................................10
Probes for Special Applications ...............................................................................10
Probe Design ............................................................................................................... 11
Case .................................................................................................................................. 11
B acking Material ..............................................................................................................11
Electrodes ......................................................................................................................... 11
Transducers (Piezoelectric Elements) .......................................................................... 11
Wear Face ......................................................................................................................... 11
Resolution ......................................................................................................................... 11
Sensitivity ......................................................................................................................... 11
Special Circuits .......................................................................................................................11
Gates .................................................................................................................................. 11
Distance Amplitude Correction/Time Controlled Gain ................................................12
Ultrasonic Testing Techniques ...................................................................................................12
Couplant .................................................................................................................................. 12
Pulse Echo Techniques ......................................................................................................... 13
Through Transmission Technique ........................................................................................13
Contact Testing .......................................................................................................................14
Immersion Testing ............................................................................... 14
Special Ultrasonic Testing Techniques ..................................................................................... 14
Reference and Calibration Standards (Test Blocks) ................................................................. 15
Inspection of Material Forms .....................................................................................................16
Ingots ...................................................................................................................................... 16
Pipes and Tubular Products ...................................................................................................16
Plate and Sheet .......................................................................................................................17
Bar and Rod ........................................................................................................................... 18
Forgings ..................................................................................................................................18
Castings ..................................................................................................................................19
Composites ............................................................................................................................. 19
Welds ......................................................................................................................................20
Bonded Structures .................................................................... 21
Special Products ....................................................................................................................22
Discontinuity Detection ............................................................................................................. 23
Evaluation of Indications ........................................................................................................... 24
Estimation of Discontinuity Size ......................................................................................... 24
Evaluation of Signal Patterns ..............................................................................................25
Ultrasonic Inspection Documents, Standards and Codes ........................................................ 26

Review Questions .............................................................................................................................29

A n s w e rs ...............................................................................................................................................37
Appendix, Standard Terminology for Ultrasonic Testing ........................................................ 39
 Introduction

Overview of the Study Guide Recommended References

This study guide contains basic information Nondestructive Testing Handbook, second
intended to prepare a candidate for Level II edition: Volume 7, Ultrasonic Testing
ultrasonic inspection examinations. This study
guide does not present all of the knowledge Ultrasonic Testing Programmed Instruction
necessary for certification; the candidate is Handbook, PI-4-4, second edition,
expected to supplement this guide with the Volumes I-III (ASNT/General Dynamics)
recommended references that follow.
Following key sections of the text are Ultrasonic Testing Classroom Training
“Recommended reading” boxes listing
Handbook, CT-6-4, second edition
references where additional information on the
subjects identified can be found. (ASNT/General Dynamics)
Review questions beginning on page 29 are
typical of those that could appear within a Resource Materials
portion of the Level II General Examination.
These questions also indicate references for ASM Metals Handbook, 9th edition,
further study and are intended to aid the Volume 17, Nondestructive Evaluation and
candidate in determining his/her Quality Control, Ultrasonic Inspection
comprehension of the material. Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A (2001)
The following acronyms are used in the
Recommended reading lists and Review ANSI/ASNT CP-189 (2001): Standard for
Questions: HB=NDT Handbook; Qualification and Certification o f
Pl=Ultrasonic Testing Programmed Instruction Nondestructive Testing Personnel
Handbook; CT=Ultrasonic Testing Classroom
Training Handbook', ASM=ASM Metals
Handbook.

Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the support of the
AlliedSignal Aerospace NDT Network, the
ASNT Technical Services Department staff,
and Karta Technologies, Inc. Technical reviews
were provided by Yoseph Bar-Cohen, Matt
Golis and Mark Warchol.
 Overview of Ultrasonic Testing

History of Ultrasonic Testing 0.08 in.) thick. For most ultrasonic testing
applications, only one side of the object needs
Ultrasonic testing is a nondestructive testing to be accessible and for many applications,
method that uses high frequency (>20,000 Hz) small, portable units are available. Ultrasonic
sound waves to inspect materials for surface testing is not hazardous to personnel, so the
and subsurface discontinuities. only safety precautions necessary are those
Scientists investigating continuous wave practiced with any electrical equipment. A
techniques first used high frequency acoustic particularly useful feature of the method is its
waves for nondestructive testing in the 1930s. ability to measure quite accurately the depth
The early inspection techniques relied on the location of discontinuities from the test
transmission of ultrasound through the part surface.
from a transmitting unit to a receiving unit, A limitation of the method is that it is not
which limited inspection to parts that could be always reliable for detection of surface and
accessed on opposite sides. The level of near surface discontinuities. Very small parts,
sensitivity obtainable with these early methods and those with irregular shapes or rough
allowed only the detection of discontinuities surfaces, small radii, large grain size, or
that obstructed the ultrasound transmission and inhomogenieties may be difficult or impossible
in effect were relatively large. to test. Precise lateral (side-to-side) location
These early limitations were overcome in and accurate sizing of discontinuities is often
the 1940s by the use of pulsed ultrasonic not possible. Identification of the type of
waves. Pulse echo inspection techniques were discontinuity found is usually very subjective,
developed where ultrasound is both requires extensive experience and is frequently
transmitted and received from the same side of debatable. Often, other methods such as
the part. Pulse echo ultrasonic testing is electromagnetic testing, radiographic testing,
capable of detecting small discontinuities, liquid penetrant testing, or magnetic particle
determining their location and depth and testing are often used in conjunction with
estimating their size. This nondestructive ultrasonic testing to overcome these
testing technique has continued to develop into limitations.
a sophisticated, reliable and efficient
inspection tool, that is sometimes integrated
with imaging software and used in a variety of Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
industrial applications. This section describes the basic elements of
ultrasonic testing including the basic properties
of acoustic waves and an overview of wave
Advantages and Limitations of modes and search units.
Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic testing is a versatile volumetric
Generation and Characteristics of
examination that is capable of usefully Ultrasound
examining a wide range of thicknesses in Ultrasound is usually generated by using
many materials. For example, steel forgings up electromechanical transducers called
to 2 m (6 ft) in diameter and 6-7 m (18-20 ft) piezoelectric materials. These materials
long are regularly tested both radially and deform when subjected to an electric potential
axially, as are much smaller sections such as or voltage. If the potential alternates from
thin wall tubing or sheet metal 1-2 mm (0.04- positive to negative, the piezoelectric material
expands when subjected to one polarity and Velocity, Wavelength and Frequency
contracts when the polarity is reversed. Velocity is the distance traveled by the
Therefore, alternating electric current may be ultrasound in a unit of time and it is measured
converted into mechanical vibrations. The in meters per second (m/s) or inches per
opposite effect also applies, that is mechanical second (in./s). Wavelength is the distance
vibrations imposed on a piezoelectric material between two molecules that are experiencing
cause the material to generate alternating the same displacement in consecutive cycles,
electric voltages. Therefore, a transducer may as shown in Figure 1.1.
act as both a generator and a detector of The mathematical relationship of these
sound. characteristics is defined in Equation 1.
Acoustic Waves
When a molecule is displaced from its x=y. Eq. 1
position of equilibrium within a material, it
exerts a force on adjoining molecules and
transmits its motion or energy to them before where:
returning to its steady state position. In this V = velocity
manner, acoustic waves (including ultrasound) / = frequency
are transmitted away from the original source. X = wavelength
The transmission of acoustic waves is similar
to the action that occurs when a stone is The velocity of ultrasonic waves depends on
dropped into water and the ripples spread out the density and the elastic constants of the test
in all directions. Although the wave (and its object material. It is usually independent of
associated energy) travels away from the frequency (except for some special cases such
source point, there is no net transport of water. as lamb waves which will be discussed later).
The wave peaks and troughs correspond to As illustrated in Equation 1, any change in
maximum upward and downward frequency results in a corresponding change in
displacements of the water molecules from the wavelength - as the frequency increases, the
steady water level. wavelength decreases, and conversely, as
The simplest ultrasound wave is a frequency decreases, wavelength increases.
continuous wave in which the molecules are Like ordinary, audible sound waves,
continuously displaced back-and-forth in a ultrasonic waves can bend around obstacles
repetitive way. Each repetition of the molecule that are small compared to the wavelength of
displacement is 1 cycle. The frequency of the the ultrasound. Therefore, frequency selection
continuous wave ultrasound wave is the is of prime importance because even under
number of cycles a molecule goes through in favorable conditions, discontinuities must have
1 s and is measured in cycles per second (cps), at least one dimension that is greater than or
or hertz (1 Hz is equal to 1 cps). equal to V2?i in order to be detected. The best
frequency to use for a specific inspection is a
compromise between the smaller discontinuity
size that can be detected with smaller
wavelengths and the greater depth of Table 1.1: Test frequency for
penetration obtained with lower frequencies.
various product forms
Frequencies that are commonly used for
inspecting various product forms are listed in
Table 1.1. Product Test
Form Frequency
Amplitude and Energy
Castings 200 kHz-5MHz
The amplitude of the ultrasound wave is the
maximum displacement of the molecules from Forged/rolled materials 1-5 MHz
their position of equilibrium. The energy of the (i. e., sheet, plate, bar,
ultrasound wave is proportional to the square and forgings)
of the amplitude. Relative changes in Drawn/extruded 2-10 MHz
ultrasound energy are measured in decibels, materials (i.e., pipe,
which is a logarithmic scale. An increase of tube, bar and rod)
6 dB in the acoustic energy will double the
signal amplitude on the display, a 100% Welds 1-5 MHz
increase, while a 40 dB increase will raise the
amplitude 100 times. Composites/ceramics 10-50 MHz

Types of Waves (Modes) the direction of propagation. [Both horizontal

Ultrasound can propagate in different and vertical shear waves (SH and SV) are
vibrational modes, which differ in the recognized, but they are beyond the scope of
direction(s) of particle displacement relative to this guide.] When molecules in a plane
the direction of wave propagation. perpendicular to the wave propagation move
Longitudinal, shear, surface (rayleigh) and sideways, this sliding motion is transferred to
plate (lamb) waves are frequently used the next plane of molecules through a shear
ultrasonic wave modes. force. This wave penetrates appreciable
distances only in solids (it may penetrate a
Longitudinal Waves short distance in highly viscous liquids). Shear
Longitudinal waves (also called L-waves, wave velocity is approximately half of the
compressional-waves, or p-waves) have a velocity for a longitudinal wave in the same
molecular (particle) motion or displacement material. As a result, shear waves have about
that is parallel to the direction of wave half the wavelength and twice the sensitivity
propagation. A snapshot of the material would of longitudinal waves having the same
show regions of lower and higher density frequency.
alternating in the propagation direction as
molecules pull and push the molecule in front Surface Waves
of them. This wave is similar to the wave Surface (rayleigh) waves have an elliptical
obtained with a long coil spring when one end wave motion and propagate along the surface
is moved sharply back-and-forth along the axis of the test material. They are generally
of the spring. These waves are the easiest to considered to have a depth of penetration into
generate and detect, and are the only type that the material of approximately one wavelength.
can be propagated in liquids, gases and solids. Therefore, they are useful for detecting surface
In most ultrasonic testing applications, the and near surface discontinuities, but not for
ultrasound energy originates as longitudinal deeper discontinuities. Surface waves are very
waves, which are converted to other modes if sensitive to surface discontinuities, surface
needed for the particular test application. contaminants (for example, grease, paint or
scale) and uneven distribution of the couplant.
Shear Waves
Shear waves (transverse waves) have a
molecule displacement that is perpendicular to
Lamb Waves where:
Lamb waves (plate waves) can propagate in A'o = the near field length
platelike objects if the frequency, material D = the diameter of the transducer
thickness and beam entry angle are properly X = the wavelength of the ultrasound
related to each other. They differ from surface
waves and shear waves in that the entire part In the far field, the beam spreads at a
vibrates as the wave propagates parallel to the constant angle (in a cone shape, for circular
surface. Unlike surface waves, they are not transducers) and the ultrasound energy
readily absorbed by couplants. However, they decreases in a monotonic manner with distance
are not widely used because there is no regular from the search unit. Therefore, the amplitude
relationship between discontinuity size and of an echo from a reflector in the far field is
response - each application requires related to the reflector size. For this reason, it
development. is desirable to perform the inspection in the far
field of the search unit whenever possible.
Propagation of Ultrasound It is useful to know the beam width at any
point in order to determine what region of the
Beam Spread test object is being scanned. In the far field,
Because of a fundamental physical this can be calculated from the transducer
phenomenon called diffraction, the ultrasonic diameter and the ultrasound frequency. In
beam gradually spreads out as it propagates, general, the beam spread angle decreases with
becoming broader as it gets farther from the the search unit diameter and frequency
transducer. Because no energy is being added approximately according to Equation 3
as the beam propagates, the spreading out
decreases the intensity of the beam. The
1.22 A
farther the beam travels, the less intense it sm y Eq. 3
becomes. D

Near Field (Fresnel)/Far Field (Fraunhofer) where:

For a simple, nonfocused search unit, as the y = beam angle in degrees
beam travels away from the search unit, it X = wavelength of the ultrasound
develops zones that have different D = diameter of the transducer.
characteristics. One is called the near field
(Fresnel zone) and the other is the far field Other equations are sometimes used for
(Fraunhofer zone). specific purposes. See recommended reference
In the near field, phase reinforcement and Nondestructive Testing Handbook, second
cancellation causes the beam energy to vary edition: Volume 7, Ultrasonic Testing for
irregularly with location within the beam. As a additional equations.
result, in this region, the amplitude of an
indication from a reflector is not related to the Attenuation
size of the reflector. While often unavoidable, The reduction in energy of an ultrasound
the near field region is not preferred for wave as it propagates through material is
inspection. called attenuation, which is a material related
When the wavelength is small relative to the parameter. In addition to beam spreading,
transducer diameter, the length of the near scattering and absorption of the sound are the
field increases with the search unit diameter major mechanisms responsible for attenuation.
and frequency, according to the following Scattering is related to the wavelength of
equation: the ultrasound and to the size and anisotropy
of the metallurgical grains in the test object.
Anisotropy is the condition of having different
properties in different crystallographic
directions within the grains. These differences
in properties result in refraction, diffraction, or
reflection of small amounts of the sound as it If the boundary is rough, rather than
traverses grain boundaries and adjoining smooth, some of the sound will be scattered or
grains. Scattering is usually negligible when diffracted, which changes the amplitude of the
the wavelength is at least 100 times the reflected beam.
average grain diameter, but if it is less than 10
times the grain diameter, useful testing of
many materials may be problematical due to
Refraction
high levels of “noise” or “grass.” If the incident sound wave strikes an
Absorption is caused by friction between interface at an angle of incidence other than
molecules of the test material. Scattering
increases with the frequency of the ultrasonic
wave. Figure 1.2: Angle of incidence

Reflection
Sound continues to travel through a medium Incident Incident
until it reaches a boundary of that medium. At Beam v Angle
a boundary, the propagation of the sound is
reflected, refracted, transmitted, or some
combination of these effects. Which effects
occur is dependent upon the acoustic
impedances of the materials on both sides of Interface
the boundary and the angle at which the waves \ Transmitted
strike the boundary. \ Beam
Acoustic impedance is defined as the
product of density of the material and the
velocity of the ultrasonic wave

Z=pV Eq. 4
\
Refracted
Angle
where:
Z = impedance (a) From faster to slower material
p = density
V = velocity

If the incident sound wave is traveling Incident Incident

perpendicular to the boundary and the Beam Angle
boundary surface is smooth, part of the sound
energy is reflected and part is transmitted. The
amount of sound that is reflected depends on Transmitted
the impedances of the materials at the Beam
Interface A
boundary, as shown in Equation 5

K - J Z z ll E ,.5 __
(Z2 + Z ,)
Refracted
Angle
where:
R = the reflection coefficient
Z, = the impedance of material 1
Z2 = the impedance of material 2 (b) From slower to faster material
6

normal, the transmitted portion of the sound propagating in the first material is a
wave may be refracted. As shown in longitudinal wave, part of the refracted energy
Figure 1.2, the transmitted beam takes a will be converted to a shear wave. This is
direction different from that of the incident called mode conversion. Using the velocity of
beam. The degree of refraction that occurs is shear waves in steel (3.23 x 103 m/s) as V2, a
determined by the angle of incidence and the Snell’s law calculation shows that a shear
sound velocities in the materials at the wave propagates in the steel at an angle of
boundary. 10.9 degrees with respect to the surface
The angular relationship between the perpendicular. This shear wave will be in
propagation direction of the incident and addition to the refracted longitudinal wave
refracted acoustic waves depends on the (that is, both will be present).
respective acoustic velocities of the materials. Mode conversion can also occur in the case
This is expressed by Snell’s law as stated in of reflected energy and Snell’s law can be used
Equation 6a and 6b, where the angles are to find the angle of the mode converted wave
measured between the direction of propagation reflected from the interface. For example, if a
and a line that is perpendicular to the test longitudinal wave is incident from steel to
surface. water with an angle of 70 degrees, two waves
will be reflected - one will be a longitudinal
wave also at 70 degrees and the other will be a
sin 02 V2 mode converted shear wave with an angle of
31.3 degrees.
The angle of the refracted beam increases
with respect to the incident beam when the
sin = l^^/shT^ Eq. 6b second material has a greater acoustic velocity
than the first material and decreases when the
second material has a has lower acoustic
velocity. In the first case, if the incident angle
For example, a longitudinal wave in water is continuously increased, at a certain point the
(yt = 1.49 x 103 m/s) striking a steel boundary refracted angle will be 90 degrees. For larger
(V2 = 5.85 x 103 m/s) at a 5 degree angle of angles, the phenomenon of total internal
incidence (f-) is transmitted in the steel at a reflection occurs, where no ultrasound
refracted angle,/2, of 20 degrees. penetrates the second material. The incident
angle for this condition is called the critical
Mode Conversion angle. If the second material is a solid, two
critical angles exist - a smaller angle for
Snell’s law can also be applied for a mix of longitudinal waves (first critical angle) and a
acoustic modes if the appropriate acoustic larger angle for shear waves (second critical
velocities are used. For instance, in the angle).
previous example, although the wave

Recommended reading

Subject Reference*
history' ol u l t r a s o n i c t e s t i n g HB
a d v a n t a g e s / l i m i t a t i o n s ol u l t r a s o n i c t e s t in g I IB: IM \ o l . Ill

p r i n c i p l e s ol u l t r a s o n i c t es t in g III!
r e f l e c t i o n / r c l f a c ti o n HB
■“Sec Introduction for explanation o f references.
 Receivers (High Frequency Pulse
Amplifiers)
Ultrasonic testing equipment includes
transmitters/pulsers, receivers, time base The receiver electronically amplifies the
generators, power supplies, displays, probes signals returned from the test object to the
and special circuits. receiving transducer and modifies these signals
into a form suitable for display. The output
Transmitters/Piilsers from the receiver (after amplification) is a
signal directly related to the intensity of the
A transmitter/pulser is an electronic signal ultrasonic wave striking the receiving
generator that imposes a short interval of high transducer. The bandwidth of the amplifier
frequency alternating voltage on the affects the resolution and sensitivity of the
transducer. The transmitter/pulser, along with ultrasonic test, as will be discussed later.
the clock circuit, controls the repetition rate,
pulse duration and damping of ultrasonic
signals.
Power Supplies
Power supply circuits provide the current
Clock Circuits/Time Base Generators for all functions of the ultrasonic instrument.
The clock circuit produces timed pulses, a These circuits are usually energized by
reference voltage and a reference waveform. conventional 115 V or 230 V alternating
The clock coordinates the operation of the current in the case of stationary units. Portable
entire electronic system. ultrasonic instruments can also be powered by
batteries contained within the unit.
Repetition Rate
A control available in many ultrasonic Displays
testing instruments is the repetition rate, which
determines the number of times per second Ultrasonic data is displayed in either video
that a pulse is transmitted. Other instruments or radio frequency mode. In radio frequency,
tie the repetition rate to the range control so the cycles in each pulse are shown on the
that the repetition rate is preset for each choice screen. In video mode, only a rectified
of coarse range. Higher repetition rates envelope of the pulse is shown. Most
provide a brighter display and can provide ultrasonic testing instruments use an analog
better discontinuity detection for high speed, video display on a cathode ray tube, which is
automated scans. However, if the repetition basically an oscilloscope. The horizontal
rate is too high, a new pulse will be deflection (sweep) voltages are synchronized,
transmitted before the arrival of the echoes by the clock circuit, with pulses from the
from prior pulses, resulting in ghost or signal generator. The vertical deflection
“wraparound” signals. voltages are provided by the amplifier output
signal.
Pulse Duration
Pulse duration is the length of time the Sweep/Gain Circuits
pulser is imposing an alternating voltage on In an analog instrument, the sweep circuit is
the transducer, as determined by the clock little more than a sawtooth voltage applied to a
circuit. The longer the pulse duration, the pair of horizontal deflection plates. When the
greater the transmitted energy and the larger voltage increases, the electron beam is driven
the dead zone, which reduces near surface across the screen. When the voltage drops, the
resolution. A longer pulse limits the precision beam starts again based on the clock signal.
in time measurements and gives reduced
resolution. It would be difficult to discriminate Sweep Delay
between two reflectors that are closer together The sweep delay shifts the time line without
in depth (time) than the length of the pulse. expanding or contracting it. The operator uses
the sweep delay to move the signal
horizontally and to fix the origin to a desired the ultrasound propagates along a single
time or depth. For example, during immersion homogenous material, and does not change
testing a long delay is generally used when acoustic modes, its velocity is constant.
starting the display at the test surface of the Therefore, the distance (time) between signals
object because the signal from this surface is proportional to the distance that separates
arrives after a relatively long time-of-flight the sources of the signals. The vertical height
through the water. of the display is proportional to the amplitude
of the ultrasound.
Sweep Length
The sweep length determines the total time B Scan Displays
(depth) shown in the display. This control lets The B Scan data presentation is a cross
the operator fix the horizontal scale for the sectional view of the test object. One axis of
desired number of distance units per display the display shows the position of the search
division (for example, 5 mm/division). probe along the surface while the other axis
shows the distance from the surface to the
Gain echo. The amplitude of the received echoes is
The gain control determines the electronic indicated by the brightness (or color) of the
amplification factor and therefore the display. The front and back surfaces of the
displayed amplitude of the signal peaks. Gain object are profiled on the display. The position,
control is generally calibrated in decibels. orientation and depth of a discontinuity along
During standardization, the operator selects the the cross section are displayed in profile as
gain so that the reference signals have the shown in Figure 1.4.
required amplitude.
C Scan Displays
A Scan Displays C Scan data presentation provides a plan
In an A Scan system, the amplitudes of the view of the test object as shown in Figure 1.5.
ultrasonic signals are displayed as a function of A gated area or “depth window” is selected so
the time-of-flight through the material, as that only echoes arriving within the time frame
shown in Figure 1.3. Peak 1 is the transmission corresponding to the depth of interest are
pulse, peak 2 could be a discontinuity and peak displayed. The display presents a projection of
3 could be a reflection from the back wall. If the shape of the discontinuities found within

Figure 1.3: A Scan display - (1) front surface pulse signal, (2) discontinuity
signal, and (3) back reflection signal
the depth window and the intensity or color of Because a refracted longitudinal wave may
the display indicates the reflection strength. also be produced in the object, and having two
These displays are often printed on paper and beams present simultaneously would be
kept as a permanent record. Many systems confusing to interpret, most angle beam probes
allow the signal to be gathered digitally, are designed so that the incident angle is
displayed on a computer screen and stored on between the first and second critical angle.
disk for later printing. These computerized This ensures that the longitudinal wave suffers
imaging systems are used to process and total internal reflection and only the shear
enhance ultrasonic testing signals, which are wave is transmitted in the object.
presented in a color form with a lookup scale Because the refracted angles depend on the
that allows interpretation of the displayed data relative impedances of the shoe and the object
as shown in Figure 1.6. Quantitative analysis
of the size, depth, or other characteristics of a
discontinuity can be made using various Figure 1.4: B Scan display
options of the computer software.
Discontinuity
Reflection — - a Front
Probes/Search Units / Reflection
As discussed earlier, the generation and
detection of ultrasonic waves involves the use
of electromechanical transducers. Some
common transducer materials used in
ultrasonic probes or search units are listed in
Table 1.2 together with their advantages and Back Reflection
disadvantages. Most transducers today are
based on some form of polarized ceramic such
as lead zirconate titanate. Quartz, the primary
material used in search units in the 1940s, is
rarely used today because of its low efficiency.
Types of Probes
The most widely used types of probes are
straight beam and angle beam contact probes,
and flat and focused immersion probes.
Various special application probes include dual
element, delay line and surface wave probes.

Contact Probes
Straight beam probes generate a longitudinal
wave ultrasonic beam in the test object at an
angle of 90 degrees to the test surface. Figure 1.6: Color display density
Angle beam probes generate an ultrasonic scale
beam in the test object at an angle of less than Depth mm (in.) Discontinuities
90 degrees to the material surface. Angle beam
probes usually consist of a longitudinal wave, 1 0 (0 .4 )-i 41
straight beam probe with a wedge shaped
plastic contact shoe that causes the beam to \
strike the test surface at an angle. As discussed 5 (0.2)
earlier, Snell’s law refraction at the wedge/part /
interface will then generate a mode converted
shear wave within the test object. 1 (0.05)4
Color Scale
material, and the impedance of the shoe or Probes fo r Special Applications
object material may not be known, it is good Special contact search units called dual
practice to calibrate angle beam probes on the element (dual transducer) probes can be used
type of material they will be used to test. for thickness measurement of thin sections or
for detecting discontinuities close to the test
Immersion Probes (Flat and Focused) surface. These probes consist of separate
Flat immersion probes are straight beam, transmitter and receiver elements housed in the
longitudinal wave units. However, they can same casing. The two elements are electrically
also be used for angle beam inspection by and acoustically separated by the use of an
angling the probe so that the beam strikes the acoustical barrier. The transducers may be
test surface at the desired angle of incidence. mounted side-by-side for straight beam testing
The water takes the place of the angled contact or stacked for angle beam testing.
shoe described above. Other special contact search units designed
Because immersion probes are immersed in for detecting discontinuities close to the
water, they must be thoroughly waterproofed material surface have an attached stand off
and well grounded. (delay line), which amounts to a thick soled
Some immersion probes are designed to shoe. The result is that the near field stays
focus the beam within the test object. This is completely inside the probe. The delay line
done by attaching a lens shaped shoe to the also has the advantage of delaying the arrival
flat face of the transducer. The purpose of of any echo from the test object to a time after
focusing the beam is to concentrate the the initial (transmit) electrical pulse has
ultrasound within the test object at a certain decayed, which further improves near surface
distance from the test surface, thereby resolution.
increasing the test sensitivity in that region. As Rayleigh wave (surface wave) probes are
can be seen by Snell’s law, the focal length built in the same way as angle beam search
will change if the object material is changed. units, except that the incident angle is adjusted
(Changing the water path length also has an so that the mode converted shear wave in the
effect, but it is usually minor.) Cylindrically test object is transmitted at exactly the second
focused probes are also made, particularly for critical angle. Therefore, no energy is
testing pipe and tube. transmitted to the bulk of the material and the

Table 1.2: Search unit materials and properties

Material Advantages Disadvantages

Quartz Electrical and thermal stability; insoluble Low conversion efficiency; least
in most liquids; mechanical strength; wear efficient generator
resistance; uniformity; resistance to aging
Lithium sulfate Easily dampened; intermediate conversion Fragile; maximum temperature
efficiency; negligible mode interaction; of 74 °C (165 °F); soluble in
excellent receiver water
Lead zirconate High conversion efficiency; mechanical High sensitivity cannot be fully
titanate strength; moderate temperature range exploited because of its high
acoustic impedance
Barium titanate Mechanical strength; good generator Depolarizes with age; efficiency
changes with temperature/mode
conversion
Lead metaniobate Low mechanical damping; high tolerance High dielectric capacitance
to temperature
incident wave is mode converted to a surface immersion testing seldom include a wear face,
wave. for obvious reasons.
Resolution
Probe Design
Resolution is the ability of an ultrasonic
Case testing inspection system to separate the
A search unit case usually consists of a ultrasound reflections from two discontinuities
metal housing that contains the transducer, that are located close together in time, depth,
electrode, backing material, grounding wires or distance from the probe. To obtain high
and a wear face that covers the transducer. The resolution, it is necessary to use a highly
case provides stability and a coaxial electrical damped probe and a wide band amplifier with
connector such as BNC, microdot, UHF, or flat phase curves in the vicinity of the probe
Lemo for cable connection to the instrument. frequency.
Backing Material Sensitivity
Backing material provides damping of the Sensitivity is the ability of an ultrasonic
transducer oscillations and mechanical support testing inspection system to detect small
for the transducer. Damping is necessary to discontinuities. As discussed earlier, to detect a
reduce the oscillations (ringing) of the discontinuity, the wavelength of the ultrasonic
transducer after the electrical/mechanical testing beam must be no more than half the
impulse ceases, in order to improve resolution. smallest dimension of the discontinuity
To do this, the backing material should have a perpendicular to the beam. In addition, the
high acoustic impedance to match the signal produced by the discontinuity must be
transducer element and be capable of large enough to be noticeable on the display.
absorbing the rearward directed waves that are Therefore, in general, sensitivity is increased
produced. Materials such as epoxy, rubber, by using higher frequencies and higher power
plastics, or composites are commonly used for pulses, and minimizing the beam spread, either
backing. by probe size or focusing.
Sensitivity is usually measured by the
Electrodes amplitude of response from artificial
Electrodes are primarily silver or gold discontinuities in a reference block.
deposited on the piezoelectric element.
Variations in transducer performance are
lessened if the deposit thickness is uniform
Special Circuits
and is less than 2 mm (0.08 in.). Special circuits provide control of additional
variables such as gates and distance amplitude
Transducers (Piezoelectric Elements) correction/time controlled gain. Such circuits
For ultrasonic frequencies greater than may or may not be provided on a particular
200 kHz, piezoelectric materials are generally instrument, but may often be purchased as
used. Common materials include quartz, options.
lithium sulfate and polarized polycrystalline
ceramics. As shown in Table 1.2, these Gates
materials vary considerably with regard to Gates are electronically controllable time
their efficiency in transmitting and receiving periods that may be set up on the instrument
sound waves, their tolerance for high display to correspond with specific zones
temperatures and their stability in water. within the test article. Signals appearing within
the gated region may automatically operate
Wear Face visual or audible alarms. The gated signal may
A good wear face for contact straight beam also be used to trigger a C Scan device for a
probes combines wear resistance. Thin layers permanent record. Gates have three basic
of aluminum oxide, sapphire, ruby, boron, or controls - gate start, gate length and gate
carbides are commonly used. Probes for threshold (alarm level or sensitivity). Gates
12

can be set for positive or negative operation, Ultrasonic Testing Techniques

that is, the gate will be triggered by a positive
(rising) or negative (falling) signal within the The most widely used ultrasonic testing
gated region. For example, a positive gate techniques are the straight beam and angle
could be used to trigger on a discontinuity beam pulse echo techniques. Table 1.3 lists
indication, while a negative gate might be used some typical product applications. Other
to trigger on a reduction of the back reflection. techniques for discontinuity detection include
pitch catch and through transmission; these are
Distance Amplitude Correction/Time usually used for special applications.
Controlled Gain Resonance testing is usually confined to
Distance amplitude correction and time thickness measurement and bond testing.
controlled gain are electronic circuits that Special processes may be used to overcome
compensate for the difference in the amplitude particular problems, such as testing of coarse
of signals received from different depths in a grained materials and for measurement of
test object. Such circuits allow the operator to crack depth.
avoid sketching a distance amplitude
correction curve on the face of the display.
Couplant
Regardless of the technique being used, it is
usually necessary to use a couplant material
between the transducer and the test object,

Table 1.3: Test technique applications for basic product forms

Product Straight Angle Resonance Special

Form Beam Beam Testing Process Reference Standard
Sheet / / / Side drill hole;
Plate / / manufactured or ASME
Bar, billet / / flat bottom hole or notch
Tube, pipe / S
Casting / / Step wedge or natural
Braze, bond / / Manufactured unbonded
areas or pore
Weld V / / / Manufactured/ASME flat
bottom hole/notch, IIW
Composite / / / / Manufactured flat bottom
hole or notch

Recommended reading

Subject Reference*
transducers HB; PI Vol. II
display and recording equipment HB; PI Vol. I; PI Vol. 11
*See Introduction for explanation of references.
because air is a relatively poor transmitter of Pulse Echo Techniques
sound waves. There is a great impedance
mismatch between air and most materials to be Ultrasonic testing for discontinuities is most
tested. As a result, very little of the sound often performed using the pulse echo
generated by the transducer is able to enter the technique. A single search unit is used for
test object through a layer of air, even if that sending and receiving the ultrasound, as
layer is very thin. Use of a couplant reduces shown in Figure 1.7(a). Short, uniformly timed
the impedance mismatch by eliminating air pulses of ultrasound are transmitted into the
and substituting a material with an impedance test object and after the pulse is transmitted,
nearer to that of the test object. Most couplants the search unit is switched to a receiving
are liquids such as water or oils, or semiliquids circuit. When the ultrasound waves strike a
such as gels or greases. In some cases, it is discontinuity or boundary, a portion of the
possible to use soft, rubberlike, solid materials energy is reflected back toward the search unit
as couplants. and received by it. The use of the same unit
In addition to impedance matching, for transmission and detection has advantages
couplant should also: in terms of simplicity of inspection, as
compared to using separate transmitting and
1. conform closely to the test surface, receiving units for scanning the part. Another
2. be stabile under test conditions, advantage, when compared to through
3. be noncorrosive - it should not react transmission, is that inspection can be
with the object, in bulk, or in crevices performed with access to only one side of the
of the test object, and test piece.
4. be easy to remove after testing. The major disadvantage of pulse echo
testing is that the initial (transmission) electric
pulse saturates the detection circuitry and
causes the transducer to “ring”; these factors
create a time period when detection of
reflected signals is impossible. The region of
Figure 1.7: Ultrasonic test material directly below the surface that
techniques — (a) pulse echo corresponds to this time period is called the
technique, (b) through dead zone. With modem search units and
transmission technique electronic circuitry, the dead zone can be kept
quite small. With dual or multiple transducers,
Test Object Discontinuity the dead zone can often be eliminated.

Through Transmission Technique

The through transmission technique is also
used for detecting discontinuities in an object.
Search This technique requires two search units and
Unit access to opposite sides of the test piece.
Ultrasonic waves are transmitted into the test
object by a transmitting search unit. A
receiving search unit is positioned on the test
surface opposite the transmitting search unit to
register the ultrasound passing through the
object, as shown in Figure 1.7(b). The
amplitude of the signal transmitted through the
test object is compared to the amount of the
Search!_________________________ Search signal transmitted through a known good area,
Unit Unit
(b) or through a reference material. A
discontinuity or region of higher attenuation it is not possible to test very thick materials.
reduces the transmitted energy. However, the technique is especially useful for
testing objects with complex shapes that
Contact Testing require several different angles of incidence of
the sound beam, and maintenance of good
Contact testing uses a thin film of couplant coupling is seldom a problem. Also,
between the search unit (or the search unit continuously varying angles of incidence are
shoe) and the test object. In addition to possible, which allows the proper angle of
impedance matching, it is usually desirable incidence of the beam to be maintained while
that the couplant act as a lubricant so the following changes in surface geometry.
search unit slides over the test surface easily, Both straight beam and mode converted
reducing wear on the contact face of the search angle beam tests are routinely performed, but
unit. For this reason, oil, grease, or glycerin surface waves are so rapidly attenuated by the
are the most common couplants for contact couplant as to render them useless. Focussed
tests. Maintenance of good coupling during search units are often used in immersion
movement of the search unit is a necessity, and testing to increase the test sensitivity in critical
requires care, particularly in the absence of portions of the object. Either converging or
relatively smooth test surfaces. diverging focus may be used depending on the
The search unit is scanned over the surface application. In many cases, suitable focussing
of the object, either manually or mechanically. can completely eliminate the effects of surface
To ensure complete testing of the desired roughness.
region, it is necessary to move the search unit
in such a way that successive passes overlap
the previous path by a known, minimum Special Ultrasonic Testing
amount. This overlap is usually specified in Techniques
the test procedure, because it is necessary to
account for beam spread and thereby ensure Some special ultrasonic testing techniques
that each element of the object is searched by that are currently being used include delta
a suitably intense portion of the ultrasound testing, tip diffraction, creeping waves,
beam. synthetic aperture focusing, ultrasonic
A single search unit in pulse echo mode is tomography, acoustic microscopy, acoustic
most commonly used, but multiple transducers holography and resonance testing.
(or multiple search units) in pitch catch or Delta testing is an indirect, pitch catch test
through transmission mode may be used. Both used primarily for weld metal. It is good for
straight beam and angle beam tests are detecting discontinuities but has limited ability
common, and rayleigh or lamb waves may be to determine their depth or size.
used. When discontinuities near the test Tip diffraction is especially useful for sizing
surface must be found, factors such as cracks, particularly the difficult depth or
frequency, pulse length and search unit through wall dimension.
damping must be considered to optimize the Creeping waves (fast surface waves) are
near surface resolution. useful for detecting small cracks at or near the
surface, especially in dissimilar metal weld
Immersion Testing joints.
Synthetic aperture focusing technique and
In immersion testing, the test object is ultrasonic tomography are computer enhanced
submerged in a liquid couplant, usually water, imaging techniques that detect and
that contains a wetting agent and corrosion characterize discontinuities. Synthetic aperture
inhibitors suited to the materials to be tested. focusing technique can produce images of
The couplant thickness amounts to a long, discontinuities and tomography can be used to
fluid delay line, which must be adjusted so map stress concentrations.
that other signals do not interfere with Acoustic holography and microscopy are
reflections from within the object. As a result, other techniques that can be used to produce
images of discontinuities, the latter being most area or distance of known reflectors.
widely used with nonmetallics and electronic Area-amplitude or distance-amplitude curves
components. are usually constructed using such blocks. In
Resonance testing, which is primarily used some cases, blocks with side drilled holes are
for material thickness gaging and bond testing, also used for such standardizations. Reference
uses special ultrasonic testing equipment to standards that vary acoustically from the test
determine the ultrasonic testing frequency at object by more than 6 dB are usually
which the test material resonates. considered unacceptable for use.
Sometimes, it is preferable or required to
prepare a reference standard from a piece of
Reference and Calibration the same material as that to be tested, by
Standards (Test Blocks) introducing notches or holes into a sample or
into the actual test object. The advantage of
To ensure accurate and repeatable such a reference standard is that the test object
inspection, ultrasonic testing equipment must and the standard will have the same
be standardized and calibrated so that data composition, manufacturing history, surface
taken by different operators are comparable condition and geometry. The disadvantage is
and can be matched against inspection norms. that usually there will be fewer artificial
This is accomplished through the use of reflectors and it may not be possible to
reference and calibration standards or test manufacture the reflectors as accurately as
blocks. Selection of a standard is determined might be done with a separate standard.
by the testing technique, the material to be Other types of standard test blocks (and
inspected and its form, the type of some of the above reference blocks) are used
discontinuities to be detected, and the to calibrate the ultrasonic testing equipment
specification requirements. with respect to essential variables such as
Reference standards, such as those designed sweep length, pulse energy and amplification,
to ASTM, ASME, or AWS specifications, are search unit characteristics, sensitivity,
used to standardize equipment responses. resolution and linearity. Typical calibration
Blocks with flat bottom holes (Figure 1.8) are blocks include HW-type blocks, DC, SC, DSC
often used to standardize the amplitude of the and MAB blocks. Two uses of the KW-type
detected signal with respect to the effective blocks are shown in Figure 1.9(a) and (b).
 In all cases, standards must be prepared and removed before further processing. Various
used in strict accordance with well designed ultrasonic testing techniques can be used to
specifications that cover the material, the detect these discontinuities.
fabrication and the application of the blocks. Immersion testing using large search units
may be used for ultrasonic testing of square,
round, or rectangular cross section ingots. Pure
Inspection of Material Forms immersion may be used for smaller ingots,
Material forms commonly inspected by while water jets provide coupling for larger
ultrasonic testing include ingots, pipe and ingots. The pulse echo test is the most widely
tubular products, plate and sheet, bar and rod, used.
forgings, castings, composites, welds, bonded Because ingots frequently have very rough
structures and special products. surfaces, contact testing may be difficult.
However, ingots too large for immersion
Ingots testing are often contact tested and may be
rough machined before testing to improve the
An ingot is refined material that is cast into reliability of the test.
a convenient shape for further processing into In some metals such as nickelbased alloys,
products such as bars, plates and tubes. These coarse grain structures can cause serious
intermediate forms may be further processed attenuation problems and reduce the
by hot or cold working, or machining to form effectiveness of ultrasonic testing.
the metal into a finished product.
Ultrasonic testing is usually performed on Pipes and Tubular Products
ingots to determine the location of
discontinuities, such as pipe, cracks, gross Pipes and other tubular products are
porosity, or large inclusions that must be manufactured by various methods that include

Figure 1.9: (a) IIW verification of angle beam search unit beam index point, (b)
IIW determination of straight beam depth resolution

Recommended reading

Subject Reference*
pulse echo techniques FIB
through transmission technique HB
special ultrasonic testing techniques 1IB
reference and calibration standards HB: PI Vol. II
*See Introduction for explanation of references.
extrusion, swaging, drawing, forging and Figure 1.10: Ultrasonic testing
welding. Typical discontinuities in nonwelded scan plan for piping and tubing
tube and pipe are blisters, gouges, seams, laps
and scabs. In welded products, the Axial Shear Wave
discontinuities are usually associated with the
weld joint, and are typically of the weld type, Circumferential Wave
such as cracks, lack of penetration, porosity
and inclusions.
Pipes and tubes are normally tested using
the shear wave technique. Immersion testing is
generally used for high volume testing. When
the contact technique is used, the search units
usually have curved shoes/wedges to conform
to the pipe or tube surface. The frequency and
beam angle used are selected to ensure
detection of all relevant surface and subsurface
discontinuities. The waves are propagated Figure 1.11: Piping/tubing
axially and circumferentially as shown in reference standard
Figure 1.10 and should be moved in both axial
and circumferential directions. Minimum 25 mm (1 in.) from end
Reference standards must have a wall
thickness and outside diameter that are
comparable to the test object. Therefore, it is
common to prepare reference standards made
r
from the material to be tested. Usually the
artificial reflectors used are notches, with a
depth of 3 to 5% of the wall thickness.
Circumferential and axial notches are usually
required and should be located a minimum of
25 mm (1 in.) from the ends of the tube and
separated by a sufficient distance to avoid
spurious signals (Figure 1.11). Signals from Rolled plate and sheet is usually
the notches are usually set between 50% and ultrasonically inspected using straight beam or
90% of full screen height to permit a common angle beam pulse echo techniques. Both
threshold for the inspection. contact and immersion techniques can be used.
Commonly, the material is tested by scanning
from one side across the width or length of a
Plate and Sheet single surface. An array of search units can be
Plate and sheet are usually manufactured by used for faster inspection and to ensure full
heating an ingot or billet and passing it coverage of the object. For critical
between two rotating mechanical rollers. The applications, both straight beam and angle
rolling process is repeated with a decreasing beam tests may be performed to increase the
space between the rolls until the desired probability of detecting all relevant
thickness is obtained. Very thin sheet and foil discontinuities regardless of their orientation
are almost always cold rolled (without prior and location.
heating). Laminations, scabs, seams and edge Angle beam testing is much faster when
cracks are the discontinuities usually sought by 100% coverage is required, but laminations
ultrasonic testing. may remain undetected during inspection.
Plate may also be made by casting, but this Straight beam inspection cannot be performed
is normally done only for metals that tend to on thin sheets when the front surface
break up if rolled. The discussion of castings resolution does not allow the separation of the
on page 18 applies to cast plate. front surface from the back surface. A typical
plate reference standard is shown in the finished forging. Discontinuities that may
Figure 1.12. occur include cracks, bursts, flakes and laps.
An alternative inspection technique for Forgings are tested with contact or
suitable thicknesses of material uses lamb immersion techniques. Both straight beam and
waves. Its use is not widespread but it is angle beam techniques are used, often on the
sometimes advantageous because full coverage same forging, because the test objects may be
of the width of the sheet can be obtained quite complex in shape. Because many
without moving the search unit across the forgings have rough surfaces, and the parts are
sheet. However, the detected signal requires frequently intended for critical service
more complex signal processing because applications, it is often necessary to machine
different frequency components propagate at the test surface to ensure thorough test
different speeds. coverage and maximum sensitivity. For
optimum results, the ultrasonic testing beam is
Bar and Rod generally directed at 90 degrees to the
direction of the principal metal flow that
Bar and rod stock are usually manufactured occurred during the forging process.
from billets by forging, drawing, extrusion or
rolling. In most cases, the working is done at
elevated temperatures. Small bars may be cold
drawn from larger bars and processed through
a series of progressively smaller sized dies.
Typical discontinuities include cracks, laps, Figure 1.12: Plate reference
seams, bursts and, in large size bars, may standard
include flakes. Straight beam and angle beam
pulse echo techniques can be used for
inspecting bar stock. Automated immersion
systems can often reduce the time required for
production inspections.
Bars are sometimes tested using a series of
search units known as arrays. Figure 1.13
illustrates an array of three different search
units mounted around the circumference of the
bar stock. The bar is scanned by rotating it in
the search units. With such systems, 100% © Flat-bottom hole for straight-beam
coverage is obtained by using: (longitudinal)
1. surface wave detection for surface © V-notch for angle-beam (shear)
discontinuities,
2. angle beam detection for near surface
discontinuities, and
3. normal beam detection for deep seated
discontinuities.

Forgings
Forgings are manufactured by hammering
or pressing ingots or billets into open or closed
dies. It may be done hot or cold, but hot
forging is most common. The open die process
compresses the material between two flat
anvils. The closed die process compresses the
metal between contoured dies that surround
 Figure 1.14: Ultrasonic testing signal response from dual search units in
different positions on a casting section
© ©

© Transmitter
© Receiver
© Coring
© Discontinuity
© Back Reflection
Good Response
Poor Response ©

Castings Difficulties in testing castings may be

caused by the complex shapes that are often
Castings are produced by pouring molten encountered and the relatively rough surfaces
metal into simple or complex shaped molds. that are common. Castings of materials whose
The sand casting process is used for large parts grain size cannot be refined by heat treatment,
with relatively simple shapes that do not such as austenitic steels and nickelbase alloys,
require close tolerances or smooth finishes, or may have a very coarse grain structure that can
that can be readily machined to required cause severe testing problems. As described
tolerances and finishes. Small parts, intricate earlier, very high attenuation of the beam,
shapes and those requiring smooth surfaces coupled with severe ultrasonic noise, may be
and fine tolerances are produced by investment encountered. This situation requires the use of
casting, shell casting, or permanent mold an ultrasound frequency that does not provide
casting. the required test sensitivity.
Straight beam inspections using contact, Typical discontinuities associated with
bubbler systems or immersion are used to castings include various kinds of shrinkage
determine wall thickness, or to assist foundry cavities, cold shuts, hot tears, cracks, gas or
personnel in quickly locating hot tears, large blow holes, porosity, inclusions, core shift and
shrinks and similar serious discontinuities for unfused chaplets.
process control. Sometimes, dual search unit
techniques are useful as shown in Figure 1.14. Composites
One of the most useful applications of
ultrasonic testing for castings is to determine Composites are inhomogeneous materials
the depth of subsurface discontinuities that usually consisting of layers of different
have been detected by radiographic testing and materials that are bonded together or
must be removed. This application often saves embedded in a matrix. Frequently, composites
a great deal of time and money by establishing consist of layers of fiber with the fibers
how deep to grind or chip, and from which oriented in various directions. This situation
side of the casting, in order to ensure removal causes major changes in ultrasonic properties
of each discontinuity. in different portions of the laminate. Examples
of composites that are ultrasonically tested
include graphite/epoxy, glass/epoxy and Reference standards are manufactured in
plastic/epoxy. Composites may also include nearly the same way as the test pieces.
layers of homogeneous materials such as Delaminations and inclusions are simulated by
aluminum sheet/glass epoxy. implanting nonmetallic films in the reference
Discontinuities that are commonly found in standard to simulate the low reflectivity of
composites include delaminations, voids, foreign material discontinuities.
porosity and ply gaps. Voids and porosity are
caused by outgassing of volatile chemical
components in the resin that are trapped during
Welds
curing. They are typically located adjacent to Welding processes widely used in
the fibers in the matrix. manufacturing include electron beam, plasma
Delaminations can result from improper arc, fusion, arc, spot and resistance welding.
curing, but most are due to impact damage, Wrought and cast products are often joined
hole drilling, or other sources of excess using welding processes. All welding
transverse tensile, or shear stresses. techniques including automatic processes, are
Delamination can also result from foreign susceptible to discontinuities in the weld and
material inclusions that contaminate layer in the adjoining base metal.
surfaces during the lay up process. Manufacturing difficult assemblies and
Inclusions may be introduced from the ply shapes requires the use of a variety of joint
carrier film, release paper, or peel plies, and configurations. Common joint designs include
they may be difficult to resolve due to low variations of butt, fillet and lap joints. Many
reflectivity. Ply gaps are caused by the different filler metals are used depending on
misalignment of composite tapes during lay up the metals to be joined and other variables in
and are difficult to detect because they are the process. Common weld discontinuities
filled with resin during the processing of the include hot cracks, cold cracks, porosity,
composite. inclusions, incomplete fusion, incomplete
The strength/life of a composite is seriously penetration, undercut and melt through.
affected by delaminations or ply gaps in the The ultrasonic shear wave contact technique
composite structure. These planar with an A Scan presentation is most often used
discontinuities can propagate under normal for detecting weld discontinuities, though
service loads and result in component failure. immersion may be used for special
Composites are generally tested using a applications. Generally, 2 to 5 MHz is used for
straight beam or through transmission squirter resolution of weld discontinuities. Higher
technique at frequencies between 5 MHz and frequencies up to 15 MHz are used on finer
25 MHz for materials less than 6 mm grained metals. An exact scan plan is
(0.25 in.). C Scans or digital computer necessary to ensure that all areas of the joint
imaging systems are often used for display and are evaluated. For example, in Figure 1.15,
recording. note that the ultrasound beam from the search
The integrity of the bond in adhesive unit in position (A) is interrogating the weld,
bonded joints is determined by using but will not be reflected from the
commercially available bond testers. These discontinuity. When the search unit is moved
machines use frequencies in the range of 2.25 to position (B), the discontinuity will be
to 25 MHz. The bond tester functions by detected.
transmitting a series of pulses into the To ensure thorough testing of welded joints,
material. Adhesive bond discontinuities are the weld and the adjoining base metal must be
detected by comparing the signal amplitude of searched in both longitudinal and both
the ultrasound wave from the test piece to the transverse directions as shown in Figure 1.16.
ultrasound wave of a reference bond integrity In addition, the base metal should be straight
standard. It is important that the reference beam tested to protect against laminar
standard resemble the test piece, especially in discontinuities that would interfere with
material composition and bond joint shape. detection by the angle beam searches.
Bonded Structures
Figure 1.17: Adhesive bonding
Metallic brazing, soldering and adhesive Metal Sheet
bonding are common types of bonding
processes. Brazing and soldering use filler Adhesive
metals heated to temperatures above their Metal Sheet
melting point. Adhesive bonding uses adhesive
(glue) to bond adjoining parts, usually metal
sheets as shown in Figure 1.17. Typical testing. Straight beam testing with frequencies
discontinuities associated with bonding between 5 MHz and 15 MHz usually produces
processes include incomplete fill, voids, base good results in braze inspections. Disbond,
metal erosion (brazes only), lack of bond and voids and porosity can be detected. Ultrasonic
delamination. testing braze standards often consist of a
Bonded joints that cannot be usefully sample joint with a hole drilled to the interface
evaluated using radiographic testing can often surface or with a synthetic void made by using
be examined successfully with ultrasonic stop off tape to prevent entry of the filler
material into portions of the joint, as shown in Rubber products are also tested with air
Figure 1.18. coupled search units. Rubber used for
automobile and aircraft applications is tested
Special Products prior to recapping to ensure a sound rubber
substrate.
Specialized pulse echo techniques using Ultrasonic testing can resolve
attenuation and velocity measurements have discontinuities on the order of 0.1 mm
been used successfully to examine wood, (0.004 in.) in ceramic and glass used in
rubber, glass and ceramic materials. aerospace applications. Frequencies over
Wood, especially particleboard, is examined 50 MHz are commonly used with focused
after hot processing using an array of air search units. Due to the local density
coupled search units. The technique uses a variations, microstructure and surface
frequency of 30 to 40 kHz to detect ply conditions, ceramic and glass materials require
separations and other unfavorable specialized techniques and reference standards.

Figure 1.18: Bond standard using stop off technique

Stop off

* * *

Plate
m A MM Adhesive/brazing
Plate

Recommended reading

Subject Reference*
I IB: PI V o l . Ill
pipe and mbulai p r o d u c t' I IB: PI Vo l . Ill

plale and s h o d I I B : PI V o l . Ill

bar and rod H B : PI \ ol. Ill

forgings I IB: PI V o l . Ill

I I B : PI V o l . Ill

composites H B ; PI V o l . Ill

I I B : PI V o l . Ill

b o n d e d structures H B : PI V o l . Ill

special products HB
|cS iv ln 'i.’Ju. in": loi c\pl.in.iii"ii ul uri'ur.i
Discontinuity Detection requirement must be balanced against the
ability to penetrate the object, which may
Ultrasonic testing inspectors must have a require a longer wavelength. Similarly, the
thorough understanding of the ultrasonic signal amplitude must be sufficient to produce
testing process and its limitations to ensure indications from the discontinuities sought, but
that the appropriate test parameters are used. not so high as to allow common acceptable
The inspector must know the typical material characteristics to be mistaken for
discontinuities that may be found in an object rejectable discontinuities.
manufactured in a particular manner, where The size, shape, type, orientation and
they may lie in the object, and at what location of a discontinuity affects its ability to
orientation. Proper identification of the test create ultrasonic reflections. Assuming that the
variables and selection of the equipment wavelength is small enough to allow reflection
increases the probability of achieving an from the discontinuity, spherical
optimum test. discontinuities such as porosity reflect the least
To obtain adequate sensitivity, the sound while smooth, flat discontinuities reflect
wavelength of the ultrasound and the the most, for a given impedance mismatch.
transmitted signal amplitude must be properly The type of discontinuity determines the
chosen. To be reflected from a discontinuity, impedance mismatch - voids, such as cracks
the wavelength of the sound must be no more or porosity, have the most mismatch while
than twice the smallest dimension bonded inclusions and some types of
(perpendicular to the beam) of the segregation have the least mismatch.
discontinuities to be detected. Sometimes, this

Figure 1.19: (a) angulation of search unit for maximum response, (b) testing
from two surfaces to obtain maximum response
K l

/
Weak Signal Maximum Signal
(a)
Scan
Direction Scan
Discontinuity Direction
IZ l

t
I

(b)
 If the major reflecting portion of the optimize the reflections from the expected
discontinuity is not oriented at 90 degrees to discontinuities, as illustrated in Figure 1.19.
the ultrasonic beam, its maximum reflection Search unit size must be selected so that the
will not be detected by a pulse echo receiver; beam spread at the chosen test frequency will
however, it may be detectable at a location permit scanning the required portions of the
away from the transmitter. Therefore, the beam object. Scan patterns must be chosen based on
angle(s) and scan plans must be chosen to knowledge of the beam spread and regions to
be inspected.
Figure 1.20 illustrates a typical immersion
test setup on a forging that presents a few
Figure 1.20: Immersion testing simple problems. A capable ultrasonic testing
automatic carriage inspector must recognize that the thinner
section (A) may require a different reference
Scanner T\ibe standard than the thicker section (C), and that
the curved area in section (B) will require a
0
Carriage change in incident beam angle.
A thorough understanding of the
manufacturing process is required to determine
ISearch Unit such factors as the type of discontinuities
associated with the process, the normal
orientation of these discontinuities, and the
Scan.
potential for interference from conditions such
as coarse grain structures. Given the many
variables involved, it is usually advantageous
to scan thoroughly from more than one
direction, and often it is useful to use more
Figure 1.21: Reference block and than one wavelength or wave mode.
the corresponding display
Front Search Unit Evaluation of Indications
Estimation of Discontinuity Size
In a typical A Scan test, ultrasound waves
that are reflected from the test object back to
51 mm the search unit are converted into electrical
(2 in.) pulses. Their amplitude is represented by the
height of the indication on the display, while
Back the distance (time) to the reflector is
13 mm represented by the horizontal distance from the
L (0.5 in.) left side of the display to the indication.
(a) Figure 1.21(a) illustrates a search unit on a
reference block that is 64 mm (2.5 in.) from
front to back, and contains a flat bottom hole
13 mm (0.5 in.) deep. Figure 1.21(b)
represents the A Scan display of the ultrasonic
test shown in Figure 1.21(a). The height of the
indications represents the strength of the
ultrasound reflections. The vertical scale on
the display (Figure 1.22) is used to measure
the signal amplitude as a percentage of screen
height.
 Because the discontinuity may not be
oriented optimally with reference to the beam
direction, the search unit must be manipulated
in order to determine the maximum indication
amplitude that can be obtained from the
discontinuity. With straight beams, this is done
by scanning forward and backward, and
side-to-side, in the general area where the
indication was detected. With angle beams, the
search unit is scanned back and forth in a
circle around the discontinuity location, while
keeping the beam aimed at the discontinuity.
A first approximation of discontinuity size
is usually made by comparing the maximum
discontinuity indication with the indications
from artificial reflectors in a reference
standard. The indications that are compared Figure 1.23: Signal display of
must have been obtained with the same indications
equipment and instrument settings. Because
the amplitude of reflections varies with both
the distance from reflector to search unit and
the area of the reflector, a distance-amplitude
curve constructed using reference reflectors of 6<3s
a single size, and an area-amplitude curve
made with reference reflectors of differing
sizes, are used for comparison. The
discontinuity indication is compared with these h
curves to estimate the discontinuity size. Porosity Crack
However, the estimated discontinuity size
found in this way is almost always less than
the actual discontinuity size. This is true
because the discontinuity usually is not as concave relative to the incident beam and
efficient a reflector as the flat bottom holes, located so that they focus the reflection at the
due to factors such as the orientation, surface receiving search unit.
roughness, impedance, or shape of the Other means of assessing discontinuity size
discontinuity. For example, in a large steel include discontinuity mapping techniques such
forging, a 51 mm x 76 mm (2 in. x 5 in.) as signal drop (dB drop), focussed beam and
silicate inclusion that produced an indication special techniques such as tip diffraction.
smaller than that from a 1.6 mm (0.06 in.) flat
bottom hole at the same distance. The small
reflection was primarily a result of a good
Evaluation of Signal Patterns
impedance match between the discontinuity The shape and width of a reflected signal on
and the steel, because the silicate was bonded the display can suggest the type of
to the steel. Other examples include smooth, discontinuity causing the reflection, but should
spherical discontinuities such as porosity, not be considered 100% accurate. This
discontinuities that taper to undetectable information is subjective and assumes that the
dimensions at their ends and cracks that twist technique has maximized the ultrasound
so that part of their length is edgewise to the reflection and that the reflector has a simple,
beam. regular shape. Figure 1.23 illustrates possible
Occasions when flat bottom hole data signal responses from porosity and a cracktype
overestimate the discontinuity size are rare. discontinuity.
They usually involve discontinuities that are
 Figure 1.24 shows the displays from two nondestructive testing method [on any object]
immersion tests. The response from a straight in accordance with [the governing
beam test shows a strong front surface pulse documents]”. ACCP defines an instruction as
and a back reflection. The angle beam test “a description of the steps to be followed when
shows only the initial pulse, front surface and performing a nondestructive testing technique
the discontinuity. If the front surface is ... in conformance with [a nondestructive
smooth, it may provide no indication at all. testing] procedure.”
The procedure specifies the required
minimum process parameters such as the
Ultrasonic Inspection Documents, techniques, frequencies, beam directions, scan
Standards and Codes patterns, test surfaces, personnel qualifications,
reference standards, acceptance standards, etc.
Ultrasonic testing usually should be to be used, as determined by the codes,
conducted in accordance with a written standards, or specifications applicable to the
procedure or instruction. The ACCP defines a test objects. The governing documents used in
procedure as “a written description [of the] preparing procedures may be employer or
minimum requirements for performing a customer requirements, or ASME, ANSI,

Recommended reading

Subject Reference*
discontinuity detection HB

de term in atio n o f discontinuity s i/e H U : P I V o l . II

signal patterns H B ; P I V o l . I; PJ V o l . I l l

ultrasonic inspection d o c u m e n ts, standards, and codes H B ; PI V o l . I l l

:-Sce Jniniiliuiii/n for explanation o f references.
ASTM, military, or other commercial
standards that apply. Ultrasonic testing
procedures should generally be approved by a
Level III certified in ultrasonic testing.
Instmctions are derived from procedures.
They specify in detail how the requirements of
the procedure are to be applied to specific
objects. They may include detailed scan plans,
what regions are to be searched at what angles,
specific surface preparation methods that are
to be used, what frequency within a permitted
range is to be used, what search angles are to
be used in an angle beam test, what ultrasonic
testing equipment must be used, etc.
Most testing requirements also specify what
records of the tests are to be prepared and
what details must be recorded. Even if not
required, a report of the tests and the results
should always be made, so the test can be
repeated if corroboration of the results is
desired, or if similar parts need to be tested.
Commercial standards, such as those from
ASTM, provide checklists of the details that
should be covered in a report of ultrasonic
testing work.
f
 Review Questions

1. The type of display that never shows the 6. Because the acoustic velocity in aluminum
entrance surface reflections is: is approximately 6 mm (0.2 in.) per ps,
how long does it take after the front echo
a. an A Scan. to receive an echo from the back wall of a
b. a B Scan. 12 mm (0.5 in.) thick aluminum block?
c. a C Scan.
d. an immersion scan. a. 6 ps.
CT b. 4 ps.
c. 2 ps.
2. The ultrasonic testing technique that uses d. 0.5 ps.
two search units is the: CT; PI Vol. I

a. pulse echo technique. 7. The wave parameter that depends only on

b. through transmission technique. the search unit selected is the:
c. resonance technique.
d. angle beam technique. a. wavelength.
CT b. velocity.
c. frequency.
3. The area at the front of a test object where d. attenuation.
discontinuities may be present but cannot
be detected is called the:
8. The technique commonly used to detect
a. front zone. laminations located parallel to the surface
b. far field. of the test object is the:
c. dead zone.
d. close field. a. lamb wave technique.
CT b. straight beam technique.
c. through transmission technique.
4. A nother nam e for rayleigh waves is: d. angle beam technique.
PI Vol. Ill
a. shear waves.
b. longitudinal waves. 9. A limitation of ultrasonic testing with
c. surface waves. respect to other common inspection
d. transverse waves. techniques is:
CT
a. its low sensitivity to small
5. Most ultrasonic testing inspections of discontinuities.
industrial metallic components use b. its limited penetration power.
frequencies of: c. its high dependence on orientation of
discontinuities.
a. 10-200 000 Hz. d. the need for access two surfaces of the
b. 200 000-1 million Hz. object.
c. 1-20 million Hz.
d. 20-100 million Hz.
10. The primary difference between the 14. Search units used in contact angle beam
contact and immersion testing techniques testing:
is the use of:
a. use a plastic wedge.
a. oil couplant in immersion testing. b. generate longitudinal waves at an angle
b. low frequency search units in smaller than 90 degrees.
immersion testing. c. have a constant angle for different
c. water couplant in immersion testing. inspected materials.
d. two search units in immersion testing. d. are always used in through
PI Vol. I ll transmission mode.
PI Vol. I ll
11. An advantage of the contact technique over
the immersion technique is: 15. Snell’s law is used to determine the
relationship of:
a. the ability to scan irregularly shaped
objects. a. frequency and velocity.
b. better near surface resolution of b. the angle of incidence and the angle of
discontinuities. refraction.
c. deeper penetration power of sonic c. longitudinal velocity and contact angle.
energy. d. frequency and attenuation.
d. that higher frequencies can be used for CT
faster scanning.
PI Vol. I ll 16. The depth that surface waves can penetrate
a material:
12. The use of lower test frequencies is
required for: a. is half the material thickness.
b. is 1 wavelength.
a. forgings. c. is one tenth of the material thickness.
b. castings. d. depends on acoustic attenuation.
c. rolled shapes. CT
d. weldments.
PI Vol. HI 17. The length of the region near the face of
the search unit where the intensity
13. In immersion testing, the angle formed by fluctuates depends on the:
the ultrasound beam and a line
perpendicular to the component surface: a. test frequency.
b. diameter of the search unit.
a. decreases when it penetrates the c. velocity of sound.
component and increases when it d. diameter of the search unit and test
leaves the component, frequency.
b. increases when it penetrates the HB
component and decreases when it
leaves the component, 18. Piezoelectric materials:
c. decreases when it penetrates the
component and decreases again when it a. have low acoustic attenuation.
leaves the component, b. can only generate longitudinal waves.
d. increases when it penetrates the c. convert pressure into electrical voltage.
component and increases again when it d. have large acoustic velocities.
leaves the component.
19. Greater beam spread occurs in search units 24. When testing an object with excessive
with: porosity, the:

a. larger diameters. a. back reflection increases.

b. higher frequencies. b. back reflection is not affected.
c. unfocused lines. c. back reflection decreases.
d. smaller diameters. d. irregular reflections from the porosity
CT become part of the back reflection.

20. A standing wave in resonance testing is

established by adjusting the: 25. Discontinuities in rolled product forms are
most likely oriented:
a. test angle.
b. test frequency. a. perpendicular to the surface.
c. water path distance. b. at 90 degrees to the surface.
d. back reflection. c. parallel to the surface.
HB d. at any angle other than the rolling
direction.
21. Using the through transmission technique, PI Vol. I ll
the quality of an object is determined by
the: 26. The notches in a plate reference standard
for angle beam testing are placed away
a. amount of lost sound energy. from the edges to:
b. frequency of the search unit.
c. diameter of the search unit. a. ensure that full inspection coverage is
d. thickness of the test object. obtained.
CT; PI Vol. I b. avoid reflections from the edge
interfering with the notch signals.
22. When using a straight beam technique, the c. detect discontinuities oriented in any
greatest reflection from a narrow, linear direction.
discontinuity in a cylindrical object is d. ensure that the maximum resolution is
provided by: obtained.
PI Vol. Ill
a. sound entry at an angle to the
discontinuity. 27. The proper wedge angle for contact
b. sound entry perpendicular to the inspection of a steel object must be
discontinuity. selected to:
c. sound entry parallel to the
discontinuity. a. ensure that the angle for longitudinal
d. a large diameter search unit to increase and shear waves is the same.
beam spread. b. provide similar velocities at different
HB angles in the object.
c. avoid producing longitudinal and shear
23. A C Scan presentation depicts the: waves at the same time and intensity.
d. be equal to the nominal angle of the
a. amplitude of the discontinuity. search unit.
b. location of the discontinuity from the
back surface.
c. plan view of the discontinuity.
d. depth of the discontinuity.
32 ASNT Level II Study Guide: Ultrasonic Testing

28. A crack that is 13 mm (0.5 in.) oriented 33. Use the formula below to calculate the
perpendicular to the sound beam is angle of refraction (02) for a longitudinal
displayed: wave passing through an interface of
water-to-steel if the angle of incidence (02)
a. only by a straight beam technique. is 12 degrees. Note: sound velocity is 1.49
b. as a wide reflection with high x 105 cm/s in water (V)) and 5.85 x 105
amplitude. cm/s in steel (V2).
c. as a sharp reflection.
d. as a wide reflection with a low
amplitude. sin^j _ Vj
PI Vol. I ll
Snell’s law: \
29. The major difference between immersion
and contact search units is their:
a. 31.0 degrees.
a. frequency. b. 54.7 degrees.
b. diameter. c. 78.0 degrees.
c. construction. d. 81.6 degrees.
d. sensitivity. CT; PI Vol. I
PI Vol. I ll
34. The resolution of a search unit in a 76 mm
30. The frequency of a search unit is (3 in.) thick test object is best determined
determined by its: by:

a. electronics. a. two discontinuities that are separated

b. piezoelectric thickness. by more than 51 mm (2 in.) of sound
c. diameter. metal.
d. construction. b. two discontinuities that are separated
PI Vol. Ill by less than 6 mm (0.2 in.) of sound
metal.
31. An advantage of a focused search unit is c. two discontinuities that are oriented at
better resolution of smaller discontinuities different angles to the front surface.
at a given frequency and the: d. a discontinuity located 64 mm (2.5 in.)
from the surface.
a. ability to find discontinuities at a given PI Vol. II
depth below the test surface,
ability to neutralize rough back 35. Couplant, used in contact testing, is a good
surfaces. conductor of sound waves and acts as a:
c. ability to maintain a narrow beam over
longer distances. a. noise suppressor.
d. result of a wider sound beam to detect b. source to reduce surface irregularities
more discontinuities. on the test object.
PI Vol. Ill c. means to reduce signal strength.
d. source to reduce reflections from edges
32. Standardization is defined as: on the test object.
PI Vol. II
a. indexing the search unit,
b. adjusting the amplitude of the reflector,
c. determining the proper sound entry
angle.
adjusting the ultrasonic testing
equipment to a reference standard.
PI Vol. II
36. To be effective, the flat bottom hole in a 41. The best type and frequency for a search
reference standard block must be flat and: unit used to inspect the bond quality of
similar metals using a straight beam
a. oriented at an angle to the test surface. technique would be:
b. perpendicular to the test surface.
c. parallel to the test surface. a. focused at 2 MHz.
d. have parallel sides. b. unfocused at 5 MHz.
PI Vol. II c. focused at 20 MHz.
d. unfocused at 10 MHz.
37. A set of distance amplitude blocks serve as PI Vol. I ll
a reference to evaluate the:
42. When testing a plate weld using a hand
a. size of a discontinuity. scan angle beam technique, “skip distance”
b. size of a discontinuity located at is the:
various depths in the test material.
c. distance of a discontinuity reflector a. total thickness of the weld joint.
from the back surface. b. distance from the sound entry point to
d. amount of beam spread using a straight the first reflection point on the same
beam method. surface.
PI Vol. II c. “V” pattern used to scan the full length
of the weld.
38. On tubular shapes, most ultrasonic testing d. distance from the sound entry point to
is performed using: the first reflection from the back
surface.
a. longitudinal waves. PI Vol. I ll
b. surface waves.
c. shear waves. 43. Skip distance will increase with:
d. longitudinal and shear waves.
HB a. a decrease in object thickness.
b. smaller angle probes.
39. A discontinuity found in a hot worked c. an increase in object thickness.
ingot that is due to high internal stresses d. both a and b above.
causing a rupture within the material is PI Vol. I ll
called:
44. Wave propagation in a material as the
a. a burst. result of sound absorption and scattering is
b. a seam. known as:
c. a lap.
d. porosity. a. diffraction.
ASM Vol. 17 b. attenuation.
c. reflection.
40. When fabricating a reference standard d. lamb waves.
from a nonmagnetic material, the surface HB
should be inspected by:

a. magnetic particle testing.

b. radiographic testing.
c. fluorescent penetrant testing.
d. eddy current testing.
45. Small voids or nonmetallic inclusions 49. Ultrasonic testing of castings is not a
dispersed within a forging are difficult to common practice due to their:
detect because they:
a. small grain boundaries.
a. are commonly found in the center of b. considerable amount of porosity.
the object. c. large grain boundaries.
b. are poor reflectors due to their size. d. irregular surface conditions.
c. are always located in the near field. PI Vol. HI
d. cannot be detected with ultrasonic
inspection. 50. The reflection amplitude of a nonmetallic
HB inclusion is lower than the amplitude of a
crack due to:
46. The velocity of shear waves is:
a. variations with the reflection angle.
a. approximately equal to half the b. variations in impedance.
velocity of longitudinal waves. c. sound wave propagation.
b. approximately equal to the velocity of d. the test frequency used.
surface waves. PI Vol. I
c. both a and b above.
d. independent of the material. 51. The mode of vibration in steel that has the
CT greatest sound velocity is the:

47. A major limitation of using a low test a. shear wave.

frequency is: b. surface wave.
c. longitudinal wave.
a. the limited depth of penetration, d. lamb wave.
b. that small search probes are required, CT; PI Vol. I
c. that small discontinuities are hard to
detect due to a large angle of 52. A large bandwidth search unit generates:
divergence.
d. the low amplitude signals from a. high frequency ultrasound.
disbonds and other flat and thin b. short ultrasonic pulses.
discontinuities. c. many ultrasonic pulses per second.
CT d. high energy ultrasonic pulses.

48. Reference standards manufactured from 53. When testing a course-grained object, set
production parts are used because: the pulse length control functions to:

a. of unique geometry and exotic metals. a. decrease the equipment resolving

b. of the size and location of reference power.
notches. b. increase the level of sound energy.
c. carbon steel blocks used to test welds c. decrease the penetration of the sound
are not available for purchase. energy.
d. the cost of purchased blocks is always d. decrease the amount of noise in the
high. object.
PI Vol. H
54. The A Scan displays information of a 58. Figure Q.58 is a display from an A Scan of
discontinuity’s depth and its: a IIW block using a straight beam
technique. To improve the signal response,
a. orientation. the inspector can:
b. shape.
c. relative size. a. use a reference standard made from
d. relative location to the back surface another material.
only. b. use a search unit with less resolving
PI Vol. II power.
c. use a search unit with greater resolving
55. A B Scan presentation displays: power.
d. increase the gain.
a. a plan view of an object. PI Vol. II
b. the amplitude of a discontinuity.
c. a cross sectional view of an object. 59. Common acceptance criteria in aerospace
d. the depth of a discontinuity from the industry specifications define the criteria
back surface. by the discontinuity’s:
PI Vol. I
a. location and size.
56. Distance in an A Scan is read from: b. response level and loss of the back
reflection.
a. top to bottom. c. length for single and multiple
b. right to left. discontinuities.
c. the top only. d. size and depth from the back surface.
d. left to right. HB
PI Vol. I
60. The factor that determines the amount of
57. When using contact angle testing to locate reflection at the interface of two dissimilar
discontinuities, an IIW reference block materials is the:
must be used to determine the:
a. angle of refraction at the interface.
a. dead zone. b. difference in attenuation of the
b. beam exit point. materials.
c. maximum back reflection. c. frequency of the ultrasound wave.
d. maximum front reflection. d. acoustic impedance of the material.
PI Vol. II PI Vol. I

61. The flat bottom holes in reference

Figure Q.58 standards used for immersion testing are
plugged to:

a. prevent corrosion on the face of the flat

bottom hole.
b. allow sound entry from either face of
the standard.
c. ensure that the drilled hole stays filled
with water.
d. provide a sufficient reflector for angle
beam testing.
62. A 305 mm (12 in.) thick, coarse grained
forging requires a test frequency of:

a. 1-2.25 MHz.
b. 10 MHz.
c. 15 MHz.
d. over 20 MHz.
PI Vol. I ll

63. When testing complex shaped objects with

tight radii or fillets, the best results are
obtained using a search unit that:

a. has a large diameter.

b. is unfocused.
c. is focused with a small diameter.
d. has a low frequency.

64. The shape of a shoe that is used to obtain

the maximum contact surface between the
search unit and a round object is:

a. flat.
b. angled.
c. curved.
d. parallel.
PI Vol. I ll
 Answers

1. c 19. d 37. b 55.

2. b 20. b 38. c 56.
3. c 21. a 39. a 57.
4. c 22. b 40. c 58.
5. c 23. c 41. c 59.
6. b 24. c 42. b 60.
7. c 25. c 43. c 61.
8. b 26. b 44. b 62.
9. c 27. c 45. b 63.
10. c 28. c 46. c 64.
11. c 29. c 47. c
12. b 30. b 48. a
13. b 31. a 49. c
14. a 32. d 50. b
15. b 33. b 51. c
16. b 34. b 52. b
17. d 35. b 53. b
18. c 36. c 54. c
 Appendix
Standard Terminology for Ultrasonic Testing
This standard terminology is adapted from ASTM E 1316-98.

A Scan - A method of data presentation utilizing a horizontal base line that indicates distance, or
time, and a vertical deflection from the base line, which indicates amplitude.
amplitude - The vertical pulse height of a signal, usually base-to-peak, when indicated by an A
Scan presentation.
angle beam - A term used to describe an angle of incidence or refraction other than normal to
the surface of the test object, as in angle beam examination, angle beam search unit,
angle beam longitudinal waves and angle beam shear waves.
area amplitude response curve - A curve showing the changes in amplitude at normal
incidence from planar reflectors of different areas located at equal distances from the
search unit in an ultrasonic conducting medium.
attenuation - A factor that describes the decrease in ultrasound intensity with distance.
Normally expressed in decibels per unit length.
attenuator - A device for altering the amplitude of an ultrasonic indication in known
increments, usually decibels.

B Scan presentation - A means of ultrasonic data presentation which displays a cross section of
the specimen indicating the approximate length (as detected per scan) of reflectors and
their relative positions.
back reflection - Indication of the echo from the far boundary of the material under test.
back surface - The end of a reference that is opposite the entry surface.
base line - The time of flight or distance trace (horizontal) across the A Scan cathode ray tube
display (for no signal condition).
beam axis - The acoustic centerline of a search unit’s beam pattern as defined by the locus of
points of maximum sound pressure in the far field and its extension into the near field.
beam spread - A divergence of the ultrasonic beam as the sound travels through a medium.
bottom echo - see back reflection.
bubbler - A device using a liquid stream to couple an ultrasonic beam to the test piece.

C Scan - An ultrasonic data presentation which provides a plain view of the test object and
discontinuities therein.
40 ASNT Level II Study Guide: Liquid Penetrant Testing

collimator - A device for controlling the size and direction of the ultrasonic beam.
compressional wave - see longitudinal wave.
contact testing - A technique in which the search unit makes contact directly with the test piece
through a thin layer of couplant.
continuous wave - A constant flow of ultrasonic waves, as opposed to pulsed.
control echo - Reference signal from a constant reflecting surface, such as a back reflection.
corner effect - The reflection of an ultrasonic beam directed at normal incidence to the line of
intersection of two perpendicular planes.
couplant - A substance used between the search unit and test surface to permit or improve
transmission of ultrasonic energy.
critical angle - The incident angle of the ultrasonic beam beyond which a specific refracted
wave no longer exists.
cross talk - The signal leakage (acoustic or electric) across an intended acoustic or electric
barrier.
crystal (see transducer) - The piezoelectric element in an ultrasonic search unit. The term is
used to describe single crystal piezoelectrics as well as polycrystalline piezoelectrics,
such as ferroceramics.

damping, search unit - Limiting the duration of a signal from a search unit subject to a pulsed
input by electrically or mechanically decreasing the amplitude of successive cycles.
dB control - A control that adjusts the amplitude of the display signal in dB units.
dead zone - The distance in the material from the surface of the test object to the depth at which
a reflector can first be resolved under specified conditions. It is determined by the
characteristics of the search unit, the ultrasonic test instrumentation and the test object.
decibel (dB) - Twenty times the base ten logarithm of the ratio of two ultrasonic signal
amplitudes, dB = 20 logjQ (amplitude ratio).
delayed sweep - An A Scan or B Scan presentation in which an initial part of the time scale is
not displayed.
distance amplitude compensation (electronic) - The compensation or change in receiver
amplification necessary to provide equal amplitude on the display of the ultrasonic flaw
detector for reflectors of equal area which are located at different depths in the material.
distance amplitude correction (swept gain, time corrected gain, time variable gain, etc.) -
Electronic change of amplification to provide equal amplitude from equal reflectors at
different depths.
distance amplitude response curve - A curve showing the relationship between the different
distances of the amplitudes of ultrasonic response from targets of equal size in an
ultrasonic transmitting medium.
distance gain size (German AVG) - Distance amplitude curves permitting prediction of
reflector size compared to the response from a back surface reflection.
distance linearity range - The range of horizontal deflection in which a constant relationship
exists between the incremental horizontal displacement of vertical indications on the A
Scan presentation and the incremental time required for reflected waves to pass through a
known length in a uniform transmission medium.
dual search unit - A search unit containing two elements, one a transmitter, the other a receiver.
dynamic range - A measure of the capability of a test system to accept input signals of varying
magnitudes, given by the ratio of the maximum to minimum input signals which at
constant gain will produce distortionfree outputs, having discernible changes with
incremental variations in input.

echo - Indication of reflected energy.

far field - The zone of the beam where equal reflectors give exponentially decreasing
amplitudes with increasing distance. Also known as the Fraunhofer zone.
focused beam - Converging energy of the sound beam at a specified distance.
Fraunhofer zone - see far field.
frequency (fundamental) - In resonance testing, the frequency at which the wave length is
twice the thickness of the examined material.
frequency (inspection) - Effective ultrasonic wave frequency of the system used to inspect the
material.
frequency (pulse repetition) - The number of times per second an electroacoustic search unit is
excited by the pulse generator to produce a pulse of ultrasonic energy. This is also called
pulse repetition rate.
Fresnel zone - see near field.

gate - An electronic means of selecting a segment of the time range for monitoring or further
processing.

immersion testing - An ultrasonic examination method in which the search unit and the test part
are submerged (at least locally) in a fluid, usually water.
impedance (acoustic) - A mathematical quantity used in computation of reflection
characteristics at boundaries; product of wave velocity and material density.
indication - That which marks or denotes the presence of a reflector.
initial pulse - The response of the ultrasonic system display to the transmitter pulse (sometimes
called main bang).
42 ASNT Level II Study Guide: Liquid Penetrant Testing

interface - The boundary between two materials.

lamb wave - A specific mode of propagation in which the two parallel boundary surfaces of the
material under examination (such as a plate or the wall of a tube) establish the mode of
propagation. The lamb wave can be generated only at particular values of frequency,
angle of incidence and material thickness. The velocity of the wave is dependent on the
mode of propagation and the product of the material thickness and the examination
frequency.
linearity (amplitude) - A measure of the proportionality of the amplitude of the signal input to
the receiver and the amplitude of the signal appearing on the display of the ultrasonic
instrument or on an auxiliary display.
linearity (time or distance) - A measure of the proportionality of the signals appearing on the
time or distance axis of the display and the input signals to the receiver from a calibrated
time generator or from multiple echoes from a plate of material of known thickness.
longitudinal wave - Those waves in which the particle motion of the material is essentially in
the same direction as the wave propagation.
loss of back reflection - An absence or significant reduction in the amplitude of the indication
from the back surface of the part under examination.

markers - The electronically generated time pulses or other indicators that are used on the
instrument display to measure distance or time.
mode - The type of ultrasonic wave propagating in the materials as characterized by the particle
motion (for example, longitudinal, transverse, etc.).
mode conversion - Phenomenon by which an ultrasonic wave that is propagating in one mode
can reflect or refract at an interface to form ultrasonic wave(s) of other modes.
multiple back reflections - Successive reflections from the back surface of the material under
examination.
multiple reflections - Successive echoes of ultrasonic energy between two surfaces.

near field - The region of the ultrasonic beam adjacent to the transducer and having complex
beam profiles. Also known as the Fresnel zone.
noise - Any undesired signal (electrical or acoustic) that tends to interfere with the reception,
interpretation, or processing of the desired signal.
normal incidence (also see straight beam) - A condition in which the axis of the ultrasonic
beam is perpendicular to the entry surface of the part under examination.

penetration depth - The maximum depth in a material from which usable ultrasonic
information can be obtained and measured.
plate wave - see lamb wave,
probe - see search unit.
pulse - A short wave train of mechanical vibrations.
pulse echo method - An inspection method in which the presence and position of a reflector are
indicated by the echo amplitude and time.
pulse length - A measure of the duration of a signal as expressed in time or number of cycles.
pulse repetition rate - see frequency (pulse repetition).

radio frequency display - The display of an unrectified signal on the cathode ray tube or
recorder.
range - The maximum sound path that is displayed.
rayleigh wave - An ultrasonic surface wave in which the particle motion is elliptical and the
effective penetration is approximately one wavelength.
reference block - A block that is used both as a measurement scale and as a means of providing
an ultrasonic reflection of known characteristics.
reflection - see echo.
reflector - An interface at which an ultrasonic beam encounters a change in acoustic impedance
and at which at least part of the energy is reflected.
reject (suppression) - A control for minimizing or eliminating low amplitude signals (electrical
or material noise) so that larger signals are emphasized.
resolution - The ability of ultrasonic equipment to give simultaneous, separate indications from
discontinuities having nearly the same range and lateral position with respect to the beam
axis.
resonance method - A technique in which continuous ultrasonic waves are varied in frequency
to identify resonant characteristics in order to discriminate some property of a part such
as thickness, stiffness, or bond integrity.

saturation - A condition in which an increase in input signal produces no increase in amplitude

on the display.
saturation level - see vertical limit.
scanning - The movement of a search unit relative to the test piece in order to examine a
volume of the material.
scanning index - The distance the search unit is moved between scan paths after each traverse
of the part.
scattering - The dispersion, deflection, or redirection of the energy in an ultrasonic beam caused
by small reflectors in the material being examined.
SE probe - see dual search unit (twin probe).
search unit - An electroacoustic device used to transmit or receive ultrasonic energy, or both.
The device generally consists of a nameplate, connector, case, backing, piezoelectric
element, wear face, or lens, or wedge.
sensitivity - A measure of the smallest ultrasonic signal which will produce a discernible
indication on the display of an ultrasonic system.
shear wave - Wave motion in which the particle motion is perpendicular to the direction of
propagation.
shear wave search unit (F cut quartz search unit) - A straight beam search unit used for
generating and detecting shear waves.
signal-to-noise ratio - The ratio of the amplitude of an ultrasonic indication to the amplitude of
the maximum background noise.
skip distance - In angle beam examination, the distance along the test surface, from sound entry
point to the point at which the sound returns to the same surface. It can be considered the
top surface distance of a complete vee path of sound in the test material.
straight beam - A vibrating pulse wave train traveling normal to the test surface.
suppression - see reject (suppression).
surface wave - see rayleigh wave.
sweep - The uniform and repeated movement of an electron beam across the cathode ray tube.
swept gain - see distance amplitude correction.

testing, ultrasonic - A nondestructive method of examining materials by introducing ultrasonic

waves into, through or onto the surface of the article being examined and determining
various attributes of the material from effects on the ultrasonic waves.
test surface - That surface of a part through which the ultrasonic energy enters or leaves the
part.
through transmission technique - A test procedure in which the ultrasonic vibrations are
emitted by one search unit and received by another at the opposite surface of the material
examined.
transducer - An electroacoustical device for converting electrical energy into acoustical energy
and vice versa. See also crystal.
transverse wave - see shear wave.
transverse wave - Wave motion in which the particle displacement at each point in a material is
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
true attenuation - That portion of the observed ultrasonic energy loss which is intrinsic to the
medium through which the ultrasound propagates. True attenuation losses may be
attributed to the basic mechanisms of absorption and scattering.
ultrasonic - Pertaining to mechanical vibrations having a frequency greater than aDDroximatelv
20 000 Hz. y
ultrasonic spectroscopy - Analysis of the frequency spectrum of an ultrasonic wave.

V path - The angle beam path in materials starting at the search unit examination surface,
through the material to the reflecting surface, continuing to the examination surface in
front of the search unit, and reflection back along the same path to the search unit. The
path is usually shaped like the letter V.
vertical limit - The maximum readable level of vertical indications determined either by an
electrical or a physical limit of an A Scan presentation.
video presentation - Display of the rectified, and usually filtered, radio frequency signal.

water path - The distance from the transducer to the test surface in immersion or water column
testing.
wave front - A continuous surface drawn through the most forward points in a wave disturbance
which have the same phase.
wave train - A succession of ultrasonic waves arising from the same source, having the same
characteristics and propagating along the same path.
wedge - In ultrasonic angle beam examination by the contact method, a device used to direct
ultrasonic energy into the material at an angle.