GOLDEN AGE INSTITUTE

CLASS 12th PHYSICS

CH – 1st RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

REFLECTION OF LIGHT : When light is incident on a surface transparent or opaque it is partly

sent back by the surface in the same medium through which it had come this phenomenon is called
reflection of light by the surface.

LAWS OF REFLECTION

i. The incident ray , the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same
plane.

ii. The angle of reflection (∠r) is equal to the angle of incidence (∠i).

∠i=∠r

NOTE : For normal incidence ( i = 0 ) the ray reflected back along its own path.

TYPES OF MIRRORS

1) Plane Mirror

• Object and Image are at equal distance from Plane Mirror.

• Size of image is equal to size of object.

2) Spherical Mirror :- Whose reflecting surfaces are spherical.

Lateral Inversion – The right side of the object appears left Side of the image and vice-versa.

1
REFLECTION OF LIGHT BY SPHERICAL MIRRORS
Convex

a) Radius of Curvature (R) - Distance between Pole and the Centre of Curvature.

b) Centre of Curvature (C) - Centre of that imaginary sphere Of which, mirror is part.

c) Pole (P) – It is the mid-point of its reflecting surface.

d) Principal Axis – Line joining Pole and Centre of Curvature.

e) Principal Focus (F) – Point on principal axis where all the parallel Light rays
actually meet or appear to meet after reflection.

f) Focal plane – it is a plane that is perpendicular to the axis of a lens or mirror and
passes through the focus.

g) Aperture – Effective diameter of the spherical mirror.

h) Focal Length (f) – It is the distance between Pole and the Focus.

2
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RADIUS OF CURVATURE AND FOCAL LENGTH

Let C be the centre of curvature of the mirror. Consider a ray parallel to the principal axis
striking the mirror at M. Then CM will be perpendicular to the mirror at M.

Let q be the angle of incidence, and MD be the perpendicular from M on the principal
axis. Then,

∠MCP = ϴ and ∠ MFP = 2 ϴ

𝑴𝑫 𝑴𝑫
Now tan ϴ = and tan 2ϴ =
𝑪𝑫 𝑭𝑫

For paraxial rays ϴ is small tan ϴ ≈ ϴ and tan 2 ϴ ≈ 2 ϴ

𝑴𝑫 𝑴𝑫
We get =2
𝑭𝑫 𝑪𝑫
𝑪𝑫
Or FD =
𝟐

Now, for small ϴ , the point D is very close to the point P. Therefore, FD = f and CD = R.

𝑹
f=
𝟐

3
SIGN CONVENTION

To derive the relevant formulae for reflection by spherical mirrors and refraction by
spherical lenses, we must first adopt a sign convention for measuring distances. we will
follow the Cartesian sign convention.

NOTE : The focal length and the radius of curvature of a concave mirror are negative while
those of a convex mirror are positive.The magnification for a real image is negative while
that for a virtual image is positive.

Ray Diagram Rules

• A ray parallel to principal axis, will pass through the focus after reflection.

• A ray passing through principal focus of concave mirror will emerge parallel to
principal axis after reflection.

• Ray passing through Center of Curvature of a Concave mirror gets reflected back in
same path.

• The Incident and Reflected rays make equal angles with principal Axis.

4
 CONCAVE MIRROR

CONVEX MIRROR

THE MIRROR EQUATION

Mirror equation is the relation between the object distance (u), image distance (v)
and the focal length (f ).

5
The two right-angled triangles A’B’F and MPF are similar. (For paraxial rays, MP can
be considered to be a straight line perpendicular to CP.)

𝑩′𝑨′ 𝑩′𝑭
Therefore, =
𝑷𝑴 𝑭𝑷

𝑩′𝑨′ 𝑩′𝑭 𝑩′𝑷 − 𝑭𝑷 −𝒗−(−𝒇)

or 𝑩𝑨
= = = …..(i) as PM =
𝑭𝑷 𝑭𝑷 −𝒇
BA

Since ∠ APB = ∠ A’PB’ the right angled triangles A’B’P and ABP are also similar.
Therefore,

𝐵′𝐴′ 𝑩′𝑷 −𝑣
= = …..(ii)
𝐵𝐴 𝑩𝑷 −𝑢
Comparing Eqs. ( i ) and ( ii ), we get

−𝒗−(−𝒇) −𝒗
=
−𝒇 −𝒖

𝒗 − 𝒇 𝒗
or =
𝒇 𝒖
𝒗 𝒗
or = 1+
𝒇 𝒖

Dividing both side by v, we get

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+𝒖 =
𝒗 𝒇

This relation is known as the mirror equation.

LINEAR MAGNIFICATION ( M )

It is the ratio of the height of the image (h’) to the height of the object (h).

𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 (−ℎ′) −𝑣

m= =
𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 (ℎ) −𝑢

ℎ′ 𝒗
i.e m= = −
ℎ 𝒖

6
REFRACTION : The change in direction of the path of light , when it passes from
one transparent medium to another transparent medium , is called refraction of
light. The refraction of light is essentially a surface phenomenon.

CAUSE OF REFRACTION ( OR CHANGE IN DIRECTION ) : When a ray of light

passes from one medium to another medium , its direction ( or path ) changes because of
change in speed of light in going from one medium to another.

NOTE

• If Light moves from rarer to denser medium its speed will decrease and it will bends
towards the normal.( n >1 , r < i )
• If Light moves from denser to rarer medium its speed will increase and it will bends
away from the normal.( n < 1 , r > i )
• If light fall normally (∠ i = 0 ) on the surface although its direction does not change but
speed of light certainly changes.

Note : Optical density should not be confused with mass density, which is mass per unit
volume. It is possible that mass density of an optically denser medium may be less than
that of an optically rarer medium (optical density is the ratio of the speed of light in two
media). For example, turpentine and water. Mass density of turpentine is less than that of
water but its optical density is higher.

7
LAWS OF REFRACTION ( SNELL’S LAWS)

(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface at the point of
incidence, all lie in the same plane.

(ii) The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence(i) to the sine of angle of refraction(r) is
constant for the par of given media.This constant is called the refractive index (µ21 ).

𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝒊
= n21
𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝒓

Refractive Index(n21) : It is define as the ratio of the sine of angle of incidence in the
first medium to the sine of angle of refraction in the second medium.

• The refractive index has no units as it is the ratio of two similar quantities.
• It is a characteristicproperty of the pair of media (and also depends inversely on the
wavelength of light), but is independent of the angle of incidence.
• n21 represents refractive index of medium 2 with respect to Medium 1, when light is
going from medium 1 to medium 2.
• Physically refractive index represent extent of change in direction that takes place in a
given pair of media.
• The refractive index of a medium with respect to vacuum is called Absolute refractive index of
medium.
If light moves from water to glass then refractive index of glass with
respect to water will be -

𝒏𝒈𝒂 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒊𝒓(𝒄) / 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒈𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔(𝑽𝒈) 𝑽𝒘

µgw = = =
𝒏𝒘𝒂 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒊𝒓(𝒄) / 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓(𝑽𝒘) 𝑽𝒈

• If n21 is the refractive index of medium 2 with respect to medium 1 and n12 the
refractive index of medium 1 with respect to medium 2, then it should be clear that
𝟏 𝟏
n12 = OR ngw =
𝒏𝟐𝟏 𝒏𝒘𝒈
• It also follows that if n32 is the refractive index of medium 3 with respect to medium 2
then n32 = n31 × n12 where n31 is the refractive index of medium 3 with respect to
medium 1.

8
Refraction through a Rectangular Glass Slab :

• i = Angle of incidence
• r = Angle of Refraction
• e = Angle of Emergence

➢ Angle of incidence = Angle of Emergence, ∠i = ∠e

➢ If the incident ray falls normally to the surface of glass slab, then there is
no bending of ray of light ; i.e. it goes straight.

➢ Lateral displacement is the distance between direction of incident ray and

the emergent ray in the glass slab.

Apparent / Real depth

An object placed in a denser medium when placed in a rarer medium ,appears to be at

a depth less than its real depth . This is because of refraction of light.

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

When a ray of light travelling in a denser medium , is incident at the surface of a rarer
medium such that the angle of incidence is greater than critical angle for the pair of media
, the ray is totally reflected back into the denser medium . This phenomenon is called the
total reflection.
Conditions for TIR
• Light must travel from denser to rarer medium
• Angle of incidence in the denser medium should be greater than critical angle.

9
Critical Angle(ic) : Critical angle is the angle of incidence in the denser medium due to
which angle of refraction in the rarer medium is 90°.
i.e when i = ic , r = 90°

Relationship Between R.I and Critical angle (ic).

When i=ic , r = 90
𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒄
we know = n21
𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝟗𝟎°
But Sin 90° = 1
Hence Sin ic = n21

The refractive index of denser medium 1 with respect to rarer medium 2 will be
𝟏
n12 =
𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝒊𝒄

Total internal reflection in nature and its technelogical applications

i) Prism: Prisms designed to bend light by 90° or by 180°(invert without changing

there ). make use of total internal reflection.

10
(ii) Optical fibres: Nowadays optical fibres are extensively used for transmitting audio
and video signals through long distances. Optical fibres too make use of the phenomenon
of total internal reflection.

REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES AND BY LENSES

Spherical Lens - A transparent material bound by two surfaces, of which both surfaces
are spherical, forms a lens.

CONVEX LENS

11
CONCAVE LENS

SIGN CONVENTION

1) Sign conventions are same like mirrors, now the measurements are taken from Optical
Center instead of Pole.

2) Focal Length of Convex Lens = Positive (+)

3) Focal Length of Concave Lens = Negative (-)

REFRACTION AT A SPHERICAL SURFACE

• In the above figure I is the image of an object O on the principal axis of a spherical surface
with centre of curvature C, and radius of curvature R.
• The rays are incident from a medium of refractive index n1, to another of refractive index
n2.
• We will take the aperture (or the lateral size) of the surface to be small compared to other
distances involved, so that small angle approximation can be made.Thus
NM will be taken to be nearly equal to the length of the perpendicular from the point N
on the principal axis.

12
 Thus for small angle we have

𝑴𝑵
tan ∠NOM =
𝑶𝑴

….. (i)

……..(ii)

(i) (ii)

𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟏
We get - =
𝒗 𝒖 𝑹

NOTE

Thus we get a relation between object and image distance in terms of refractive index of the
medium and the radius of curvature of the curved spherical surface. It holds for any curved
spherical surface.

13
REFRACTION BY A LENS ( LENS MAKER’S FORMULA )

•
• The first refracting surface forms the image I1
of the object O.

• The image I1 acts as a virtual object

For the second surface that forms
the image at I.
➢ Using lens maker formula for first interface

we can write.

𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟏
+ 𝑩𝑰𝟏 = ….(i)
𝑶𝑩 𝑩𝑪𝟏
A similar procedure applied to the

second interface (Note that now the refractive

index of the medium on the right side of ADC

is n1 while on its left it is n2. Further DI1 is

negative as the distance is measured

against the direction of incident light.)

We get

𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟏
- + = …. (ii)
𝑫𝑰𝟏 𝑫𝑰 𝑫𝑪𝟐

For a thin lens, BI1 = DI1

Adding Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get

𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ = (n2 – n1 ) ( + ) ….(iii)
𝑶𝑩 𝑫𝑰 𝑩𝑪𝟏 𝑫𝑪𝟐

Suppose the object is at infinity, i.e., OB → ∞ and DI = f,

𝒏𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= ( n2 - n1 )( + ) …. (iv)
𝒇 𝑩𝑪𝟏 𝑫𝑪𝟐

The point where image of an object placed at infinity is formed is called the focus F, of the lens and
the distance f gives its focal length. A lens has two foci, F1 and F2, on either side of it

14
By the sign convention,

BC1 = + R1 and DC2 = - R2

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
So we can write = (n21 – 1 ) ( - )
𝒇 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐

This is known as the lens maker’s formula.

It is useful to design lenses of desired focal length using surfaces of suitable radii of curvature. Note
that the formula is true for a concave lens also. In that case R1 is negative, R2 positive and therefore,
f is negative.

On compairing equ (iii) and (iv) we get

𝐧𝟏 𝐧𝟏 𝐧𝟏
+ =
𝐎𝐁 𝐃𝐈 𝐟

Again, in the thin lens approximation, B and D are both close to the optical centre of the lens.
Applying the sign convention,

BO = – u, DI = +v, we get

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
- =𝒇
𝒗 𝒖

This is known as the thin lens formula.

15
LINEAR MAGNIFICATION ( m )

It is the ratio of the height of the image (h’) to the height of the object (h).

𝑯𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆 (𝒉′) 𝒗

m= =
𝑯𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 (𝒉) 𝒖

NOTE :- When we apply the sign convention, we see that, for erect (and virtual) image formed
by a convex or concave lens, m is positive, while for an inverted (and real) image, m is negative.

POWER OF A LENS : - The power P of a lens is defined as the tangent of the angle by which
it converges or diverges a beam of light parallel to the principal axis falling at unit distance
from the optical centre.

𝟏
P=
𝒇

Thus , Power of a lens is a measure of the convergence or divergence, which a lens introduces
in the light falling on it.

• The SI unit for power of a lens is dioptre (D)

• The power of a lens of focal length of 1 metre is one dioptre.
1D = 1m–1
• Lens of shorter focal length bends the incident light more, while converging it in case of a
convex lens and diverging it in case of a concave lens.
• Power of a lens is positive for a converging lens and negative for a diverging lens. Thus, when an
optician prescribes a corrective lens of power + 2.5 D, the required lens is a convex lens of focal
length + 40 cm. A lens of power of – 4.0 D means a concave lens of focal length – 25 cm.

COMBINATION OF THIN LENSES IN CONTACT

Combination of lenses helps to obtain diverging or converging lenses of desired magnification. It also

enhances sharpness of the image. Since the image formed by the first lens becomes the object for the second.

Such a system of combination of lenses is commonly used in designing lenses for cameras, microscopes,
telescopes and other optical instruments

16
Consider two lenses A and B of focal length f1 and f2 placed in contact with each other. Let the object be
placed at a point O beyond the focus of the first lens A . The first lens produces an image at I1. Since image I1
is real, it serves as a virtual object for the second lens B, producing the final image at I.

For the image formed by the first lens A, we get

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
- = …(i)
𝒗𝟏 𝒖 𝒇𝟏

For the image formed by the second lens B, we get

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
- = …(ii)
𝒗 𝒗𝟏 𝒇𝟐

Adding Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
- = + …(iii)
𝒗 𝒖 𝒇𝟏 𝒇𝟐

If the two lens-system is regarded as equivalent to a single lens of focal length f, we have

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
- = …(iv)
𝒗 𝒖 𝒇

so that on compairing equ (iii) and (iv) we get

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝐟 𝐟𝟏 𝐟𝟐

The derivation is valid for any number of thin lenses in contact. If several thin lenses of focal
length f1, f2, f3,... are in contact, the effective focal length of their combination is given by

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + +..
𝒇 𝒇𝟏 𝒇𝟐 𝒇𝟑

In terms of power, above Eq. can be written as

P = P1 + P2 + P3 + …….

NOTE

• P is the net power of the lens combination. Note that the sum in Eq. (9.32) is an algebraic sum
of individual powers, so some of the terms on the right side may be positive (for convex lenses)
and some negative (for concave lenses).
• Total magnification m of the combination is a product of magnification (m1, m2, m3,...) of
individual lenses.
m = m1 m2 m3 ...

17
REFRACTION THROUGH A PRISM

The angles of incidence and refraction at the

first face AB are (i) and (r1), while the angle of
incidence (from glass to air) at the second
face AC is (r2) and the angle of refraction
or emergence (e).
Angle of Deviation : -The angle between
the emergent ray RS and the direction
of the incident ray PQ is called the
angle of deviation (δ).
In the quadrilateral AQNR, two of the angles (at the vertices Q and R) are right angles.
Therefore, the sum of the other angles of the quadrilateral is 180°.

∠ A + ∠ QNR = 180°
From the triangle QNR r1 + r2 + ∠ QNR = 180°

Comparing above two equations, we get

r1 + r2 = A …..(i)
The total deviation (δ) is the sum of deviations at the two faces,
δ = (i – r1 ) + (e – r2 )
that is, δ = i + e – ( r1 + r2 )

δ=i+e–A (ii)
FACTORS ON WHICH ANGLE OF DEVIATION DEPENDS

1. Angle of incidence
It is experimentally observed that when ∠i increases the ∠δ first decreases and reaches to a
minmum value for a certain ∠i by further increasing ∠i the angle of deviation ∠δ increases.
I.e it is found that when ∠i=∠e and r1 = r2 then ∠δ = Dm (minimum deviation ).

At the minimum deviation Dm, the

refracted ray inside the prism
becomes parallel to its base.
Thus at minimum deviation we can write
Equ (ii) as
Dm = 2i – A
OR
(𝑨 +𝑫𝒎 )
i= 𝟐

18
Equ (i) can be written as at minimum deviation .
Let say r1 = r2 = r
𝑨
we get r=
𝟐
The refractive index of the prism is

𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝒊 𝒔𝒊𝒏 [ (𝑨 + 𝑫𝒎 ) / 𝟐 ]
n21 = =
𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏 [𝑨/𝟐 ]

The angles A and Dm can be measured experimentally.Thus above equ. provides a method of
determining refractive index of the material of the prism.

For a small angle prism, i.e., a thin prism, Dm is also very small, and we get

𝒔𝒊𝒏 [ (𝑨 + 𝑫𝒎 ) / 𝟐 ] ( 𝑨 + 𝑫𝒎 )/𝟐 𝑫𝒎
𝒏𝟐𝟏 = = =1+
𝒔𝒊𝒏 [𝑨/𝟐 ] 𝑨/𝟐 𝑨

Thus we can write Dm = (n21 - 1 ) A

It implies that, thin prisms do not deviate light much.

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

A number of optical devices and instruments have been designed utilising reflecting and
refracting properties of mirrors, lenses and prisms. Periscope, kaleidoscope, binoculars,
telescopes, microscopes

1. The Simple microscope

A simple magnifier or microscope is a converging lens of small focal length . In order to use
such a lens as a microscope, the lens is held near the object, one focal length away or less, and
the eye is positioned close to the lens on the other side. The idea is to get an erect, magnified
and virtual image of the object at a distance so that it can be viewed comfortably, i.e., at 25 cm
or more.

19
(i)The linear magnification m, for
the image formed at the near
point D, by a simple microscope
can be obtained by using the relation

𝒗 𝟏 𝟏 𝒗
m= =v( - )=(1- )
𝒖 𝒗 𝒇 𝒇

Now according to our sign convention,

v is negative, and is equal in magnitude
to D. Thus, the magnification is

𝑫
m=(1+ )
𝒇
Since D is about 25 cm, to have a
magnification of six, one needs a
convex lens of focal length, f = 5 cm.

(ii)Magnification when the image is at infinity

The angle subtended by the object is given by

ℎ
Tan θ0 = θ0 = …………(i)
𝐷

The angle subtended by the image is given by

ℎ
Tan θi = θi = ………….(ii)
𝑓
The angular magnification is, therefore

𝜽𝒊 𝑫
m= =
𝜽𝟎 𝒇

This is one less than the magnification when the image is at the near point, but the
viewing is more comfortable and the difference in magnification is usually small.

NOTE : In subsequent discussions of optical instruments (microscope and telescope) we shall assume
the image to be at infinity.

20
2 . Compound Microscope

A simple microscope has a limited maximum magnification ( ≤9) for realistic focal lengths. For
much larger magnifications, one uses two lenses, one compounding the effect of the other.
This is known as a compound microscope.

The lens nearest the object, called the objective, forms a real, inverted, magnified image of the
object. This serves as the object for the second lens, the eyepiece, which functions essentially
like a simple microscope or magnifier, produces the final image, which is enlarged and virtual.

Magnification due to a compound microscope.

The (linear) magnification due to the objective is given by

𝒉′ 𝑳
m= =
𝒉 𝒇𝟎

where we have used the result

𝒉 𝒉′
tan β = =
𝒇𝟎 𝑳
• Here h¢ is the size of the first image, the object size being h and fo being the focal length
of the objective. The first image is formed near the focal point of the eyepiece.
• The distance L, i.e., the distance between the second focal point of the objective and
the first focal point of the eyepiece (focal length fe) is called the tube length of the
compound microscope.

21
As the first inverted image is near the focal point of the eyepiece, we use the result from
the simple microscope to obtain the (angular) magnification me due to it.

𝑫
me = 1 +
𝒇𝒆

When the final image is formed at infinity, the angular magnification due to the
eyepiece is

𝑫
me =
𝒇𝒆

Thus, the total magnification , when the image is formed at infinity, is

𝑳 𝑫
m = m0me = 𝒙
𝒇𝟎 𝒇𝒆

NOTE : Clearly, to achieve a large magnification of a small object the objective and eyepiece should
have small focal lengths. In practice, it is difficult to make the focal length much smaller than 1 cm. Also
large lenses are required to make L large.

Telescope : The telescope is used to provide angular magnification of distant objects .

(a ) Refracting Telescope

• It also has an objective and an eyepiece. But here, the objective has a large focal length and a much
larger aperture than the eyepiece.
• Light from a distant object enters the objective and a real image is formed in the tube at its second
focal point.
• The eyepiece magnifies this image producing a final inverted image.

The magnifying power m is the ratio of the angle (β) subtended at the eye by the final image to the angle
(α) a which the object subtends at the lens or the eye.

𝜷 𝒉 𝒇𝒐 𝒇𝟎
m= = 𝒙 =
𝜶 𝒇𝒆 𝒉 𝒇𝒆

Length of the telescope tube is = f0 + fe

22
RESOLVING POWER : The resolving power, or the ability to observe two objects distinctly,
which are in very nearly the same direction , also depends on the diameter of the objective.

Further, it is rather difficult and expensive to make such large sized lenses which form
images that are free from any kind of chromatic aberration and distortions. For these
reasons, modern telescopes use a concave mirror rather than a lens for the objective.
Telescopes with mirror objectives are called reflecting telescopes.

There is no chromatic aberration in a mirror. Mechanical support is much less of a

problem since a mirror weighs much less than a lens of equivalent optical quality, and
can be supported over its entire back surface, not just over its rim.

( b ) Reflecting telescopes.

Telescopes with mirror objectives are called reflecting telescopes.

One obvious problem with a reflecting telescope is that the objective mirror focusses light inside the
telescope tube. One must have an eyepiece and the observer right there, obstructing some light
(depending on the size of the observer cage).

23