enockmosomi

1@gmai
l.
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AGRI
CULTURE
FORM ONENOTES
(
enockmosomi
1@gmai
l.com)

ByMr.Mosomi
FORMOREE- MATERI ALS
What
sApp(+254)0748842695

INTRODUCTI ONTOAGRI CULTURE

Thewor dAgr icul
turei sderivedf rom twoLat inwordsAgerwhichmeansf ield
andcul turet hatmeanscul ti
vation.Theref or
eagr i
cul
tur
ecanbedef i
nedasf i
eld
cult
ivation.
Li
vest ockar eall t
hedomest icatedani mals.
Defi
ni ti
onofagr icul t
ure:
Agriculturei sdef i
nedast hear tandsci enceofcropandliv
estockproduction.
Asanar t
I
nvol vesuseofl earnedski l
lsandper f
or mingthem manual
ly(byhand).E.g.
Til
lingofl and.
Const ructionoff ar
m st r
uct ures.
Measur ingdi stances.
Machi neoper ati
ons.
Har vest i
ngofcr ops.
Feedi ngandhandl i
ngani mal s.

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Mar ketingofAgr i
cultural produce.
Asasci ence
I
tinvolvesexper iment at
ionandappl icati
onofsci entif
icknowledgee. g.in
ar
eassuchas:
Soil science( pedol ogy )--
-studyofsoi l.
Croppat hol ogy —St udyofcr opdi seases.
Ent omol ogy ---Studyofi nsect sandt heircont rol.
Agr icultur alEngi neer i
ng- -
-soi landwat erconser vati
onandf ar
m power .
Genet i
cs—Pl antandani mal breeding.
Product ion- --Ar eact ivi
tiest hatincreaset hequal it
yandquant it
yof
somet hing.
Cr
oppr oduct ionact iviti
esi nclude: l
andpr epar ati
on, planti
ng,fer
ti
li
zerand
manureappl i
cat ion, weedi ng, pestcont rol
,diseasecont rolandharvest i
ng.
Li
vestockpr oduct ionact i
viti
esi nclude:
Select ionandbr eeding.
Feedi ng.
Rear i
ngt hey oungst ock.
Par asiteanddi seasecont rol.
Housi ng.
Obt ainingpr oduct sfrom ani mals.
Branchesofagr icult
ur e
Croppr oduct ion: e.g.Fi el
dcr opf arming, pomol ogy ,
Flori
cul
ture,
olericult ure.etc.
Livest ockpr oduct i
on: e.g.Api cult
ure,Poul tr
ykeepi ng,aquaculture.et
c.
Soil science.
Agr icultur alEconomi cs.
Agr icultur alEngi neer i
ng.

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Cr
opf ar mi ngorAr ablef armi ng:I st hecul ti
v ationofcr opsoncul ti
v atedl and.
E.
g.Inpur est ands( monocr oppi ng)ormi xedst ands( int ercropping) .
Include:
Fieldcr ops: Ar ecr opsgr ownonl argear easofl and.Ar eeitherAnnual
cropsl ikecer eal sandpul sesorper enni al cropse. g.cof fee,tea, sisal,
caneet c.
Hor ticul tur alcrops: Areper ishabl ecr opsandar eexpor tedt oear nf orei
gn
exchange.I nclude:
Floricul tur e:Gr owi ngoff lower se. g.t uberr ose,roses, andcar nat i
ons.
Ol eri
cul tur e: Growi ngofv eget abl ese. g.Fr enchbeans, cabbages,
tomat oes. etc..
Pomol ogy :Gr owi ngoff ruitse. g.av ocado, mangoesandci t
rus.
Li
vest ockf armi ng:I nclude:
Past or alism ( mammal i
anl ivest ockf armi ng).Isther ear i
ngoff arm
ani mal sonpast ures.E. g.cat tle,goat s, pigs,sheep, camel sandr abbi t
s.
Fishf armi ng( Aquacul ture) ;Ist her ear ingoff i
shi nf ishponds.Fi shi sa
cheapsour ceofpr oteins.
Beekeepi ng: (Api culture);Ist her earingofbeesi nbeehi ves.Bees
prov ide; HoneyandWax, income, Medi ci ne,polli
nat ionoff lower s.etc.
Poul trykeepi ng; Ist her earingofbi rdsf ormeatandeggs, manur e, i
ncome.
Etc.I ncl udecl assesofbi rdssuchaschi cken(mostcommon) ,Ducks,
geese, Ost r i
ch, pigeonandTur key set c.
Agricultur al Economi cs: Deal swi thut i
lizat ionofscar cer esour cesi .e.ofland,
l
abour ,capi tal andmanagement .Itai msatmaxi mi zingout putwhi le
minimi zingcost s.
Agricultur al Engi neer ing; Deal swi t huseandmai ntenanceoff armt oolsand
equipment ,f arm machi neryandf ar m st ruct ures.

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FARMI NGSYSTEMS
Af ar
mi ngsy stem i sanor gani
zat
ionofthefar
m andal
ltheenter
pri
sesi
n
rel
ationt oeachot her.
I
tcanbeext ensi veori ntensive.
Extensi vesy stem
Charact er i
stics
Lar get r
act sofl and.
Lowcapi t
al investmentperuni tar
ea.
Lowl abourperuni tar ea.
Lowy iel
dsperuni tar ea.
I
ntensivesy stem
Character i
st i
cs
Smal ltract sofl and.
Highcapi tal peruni tarea.
Highl abouri nvestmentperuni tar
ea.
Highy ieldsperuni tar ea.
Ext
ensiv eori ntensi vefar mingcanbecar r
iedoutonsmal
lorlar
gescaleof
l
and.
Thescal eofpr oduct i
ondependson:
Lev el oft echnol ogy .
Landav ailabi l
i
ty.
Capi tal availabili
ty.
Skilledl abourav ai
lable.
Lar geScal eFar ming
Character i
st i
cs
Lar get r
act sofl and.

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Heav ycapi tal i

nv est ment .
Skil
ledl abourandqual if
iedmanpower .
Highl evel ofmanagement .
It’
sforcommer cial pur pose.
Lowoper ati
oncost speruni tofpr oductionsinceitmakesuseof
economi esofscal e.
Dependsonef fi
ci entt ranspor t.
Requir esgoodmar ketsy st em.
Mostoft hewor ki smechani zed.
Providesmor eempl oy ment .
I
tincl
udespl antationf ar mi ngandRanchi ng.
Plantat i
onf armi ng.
Charact er i
sti
cs
Larget ractsofl and.
Product ionofonl yonecr op.e.g.Teapl antati
onsinKiambuandKer icho,
Coffeei nKi ambu, Sugar canei nMuhor oni,Sisal
inMombasa, Pineapplei
n
Thika.
Ranchi ng: I
st hekeepi ngofl i
vestock(beefani mals)inmarginalrange
areas.
Iti
sani mpr ov edpast or al-nomadi sm because:
Animal sar eencl osedi nanar ea.
Diseasesar econt rolled.
Pastur esar eimpr ov ed.
Supplement ar yfeedsandwat erarepr ovided.
Pestsandpar asi tesar econt r
olled.
Therei spr ovisionofext ensi onst aff.
N.
BThel i
vest ockcar ryingcapaci tyislowbecauseofl i
mitedpasture.

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Ranchi ngi sbecomi ngmor eandmor ecommoni nKenyabecauseof :

Highmeatdemand.
Highpopul ationpr essur eonhi ghpot enti
alareas.
Arabl ef ar mi ngi sbecomi ngsmal l
er.
Smal l Scal eFar mi ng
Char acteristics
Smal l pieceofl and.
Useofi mpr ov edt echnol ogy .V
Product ionofcr opsandl iv
est ocki sspreadt hr
oughouttheyear .
Goodsar epr oducedf orsubsi stenceorcommer ci
alpur
poseI ,
esaleof
surplusgoods. .
Doesnotr equi reheav ycapital investment.
Advant ages
Litt
lecapi tal isr equi red.
Sour ceofl iv elihoodt osmal l scal efar
mer s.
Met hodsofFar mi ng
MixedFar mi ng
Thisi sthegr owi ngofcr opsandr ear ingofanimal sonthesamef arm.
Advant ages
Iti
samet hodofdi v ersificati
onwher ebyshouldoneent erpri
sefai
l,thefar
mer
canbenef itfrom t heot her .
Ther eismut ual benef itbet weent hecr opsandl i
vestockwherecropspr ov
ide
feedf orlivest ockandani mal sprov idet hem withfar
my ar
dmanur e.
Ther eismax imum ut i
li
zat i
onofr esour ces.
Disadv antages
Labouri ntensi ve.
Highi nit
ial capi tal requi red.
Farmer ’sat tent i
oni sdi v i
ded.
Nomadi cPast oral i
sm
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Past or ali
sm: Thisi st hepr act iceofr ear ingl ivestockonnat uralpastures.
Nomadi sm:Thi si st hepr act iceofmov i
ngf rom onepl acetoanot her.
Past or al–nomadi sm i st heref orethemov ingofani mal sfrom onepl aceto
anot heri nsear chofpast ureandwat er .
Thisi scommoni nt hear i
dandsemi -ar i
dar eas.
ShiftingCul t
iv ati
on
Far mi ngonapi eceofl andcont inuousl yuntili
tisexhaust edafterwhich
t hef ar mermov est oanewmor ef ertil
el and.
Iti sappl icablewher e;
Landi sabundant
Popul ationi sspar se
Numberofl ivest ockperuni tareai sl ow.
Landi scommunal lyowned.
Adv ant agesofshi fti
ngcul tivat i
on
Ithasl owcapi t alrequi rement
Ther ei snopest sanddi seasesbui l
d-up
Soi lstruct urei smai ntained
Nol anddi sput esasl andowner shipi snoti ndividuali
zed.
Disadv ant agesofshi f
t i
ngcul ti
vation
Tot al yieldsperuni tar eisl ow
Far mer shav enoi ncent ivet odev elopl andandconser v
ewat erandsoi l
Al otoft imei swast edwhent hef ar meri sshi f
ti
ngandbui ldi
ngst r
uctur
es.
Notappl icablei nar easofhi ghpopul ationdensi tyorwher ethereishigh
popul at ionincr ease.
i
v ) Agr ofor est r
y
Agrof or estr y-I nvolvesgr owi ngoft reesandcr opsandkeepi ngofani malson
thesamepi eceofl andatt hesamet ime.
Suitabl et reespeci esf oragr of orestry

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Leucaenal eucocephal a
Gravill
ear obust a
Calli
andr acat othr ysus
Mangi ferai ndi ca
Sesbani asesban
Lantanacamar a
Cajanuscaj an
AdvantagesofAgr ofor estry
Savesl aboursi ncesomeoper ationscanbedoneatoncef orbothplants
andt rees
Giveshi ghercombi nedy i
eld
Providewi dev ariet yofagr iculturalpr oduce
Reducest her isksoft ot alfai
lure
Cropsbenef itf r
om ni trogenf ixi
ngt r
ees.
Treeshel pinhol di ngt hesoi lfir
ml y
Somet reesactasl i
vest ockf odder .
Providesawi derv ar i
etyofagr iculturalproduce.
Di
sadvant agesofAgr of orest ry
Mechani zationi sdi ff
icul t
.
Useofpest icidesandf erti
li
zermaybedi ff
icul
t.
Product i
v i
tymaysuf ferbecauset heski l
lsformanagi
ngt
hedif
ferenttr
ees

FACTORSI NFLUENCINGAGRI CULTURE

HUMANFACTORS.
Theyarefactor
sinhumanbeingsorthewayhumanbeingsdot hings.
Thefol
lowingisali
stofhumanfact
orsthati
nfl
uenceagr
icul
tural
product
ion.

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Lev elsofeducat ionandt echnol ogy

Thi sist ransl atedast heabi lityofapr oducerwhoi saf armertoappl y
appr opr iatemet hodsandt echni quesinpr oductionusingav ai
lable
resour cesf orexampl e,Farmerwei ghinglivestockfoodt oensur e
efficiency
Goodeducat i
onl evelmakesaf ar
merabl etounder standandt ranslate
techni cal languagei nfarmi ng.
Heal thoft hef armer s
Aheal thynat ioni sapr oduct i
v enati
on
Thef ol l
owi ngar esomeoft hediseasest hatcont r
ibutetolower i
ng
agr i
cul turalpr oduct ivi
ty
Mal ar i
a,
Tuber culosis,
Typhoi d,
Pneumoni aandHI V/AIDS
Effect sofHI V/ AIDSonf armi ng
Lossofski l
ledl abour
Timespentcar i
ngf orthei nfect ed
Moneyspentont reatment
Stat eofeconomi cdev elopment
Thecapi talear nedf r
om economi cactivi
ti
essuchasf armingisusedt o
raiseeconomi cgr owthint hecount ry
.
Transpor tandcommuni cationnet work
Goodandef ficientinfrastruct ureisi
mpor tantforthesmoot hflowof
farm pr oducef rom t hefar mt otheconsumer .
Thei mpr ovementoft echnol ogyincommuni cationhasi mproved
farmer saccesst oimpor tanti nformationfrom ther esearchstati
onsand

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otherf ellowf ar mer s

Gov ernmentpol icyonagr icult
ural inputandpr oducet axation
Thegov ernmentofKeny a,throughdi ff
erentmi nistri
esf ormulates
guidelinest obef ol l
owedbypr oducer sofdi ff
erentpr oduct s.Afterthe
guidelinesandpr oposal sar elegi slat
edt heybecomepol i
cies
Availabi l
ityofst or agef aci l
it
ies
Cultural andr el i
gi ousbel iefs.
Local andI nternat ional mar ketfor ces
HumanFact orswhi chi mpr ov eproduct ion
Goodheal thoft hef armer
Availabi l
ityofmoney
Hight axat iononi mpor t
edagr iculturalproduce
Availabi l
ityofr eadymar ketf oragr icult
ural produce
Availabi l
ityofst or agef aci l
it
ies
Li
ber alizedmar ket
HumanFact orswhi chl owerpr oduct i
on
Rest ri
ctivecul tur al andr el i
giousbel i
efs
Poorr oadnet wor k
BIOTI CFACTORS.
Thesear elivi
ngor ganismst hataf fectagricultural production.
Bioticfact orsi nfluenci ngagr i
culturecanbedi videdi ntothef ol
lowing
cl
asses.
Croppest s:stalkbor erdamagi ngmai zei nt hef i
eld
Decomposer s: Causer ot ti
ngofor ganicmat t
ert herebyr eleasing
nutrientsf orcr opgr owt h.
Theyhel pini mpr ov ingsoi lstructurethr oughi ncor porati
ngor gani
c
mat terintot hesoi l.

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Nitrogenf ixi
ngBact eria:Nitrogenf i
xi
ngbact eriaaref oundi nr ootnodules
oflegumi nouspl ants.Impr ov ecr oppr oducti
ont hroughi ncreasingsoi l
nit
rogencont entwhi chcr opsr equi r
ef orpropergrowt h.
Livest ockpar asi t
es: suckbl oodandt ransmitdiseasest oani mal s
Pollinat ors:Beepol l
inat i
ngmai zef l
ower .Pol
li
nat i
oni ncroppr oducti
on
i
ncr easesy i
eldsandv iabili
tyofseeds.
Predat ors:Eagl escaneatchi cken, r
abbi t
samongot herl i
vest ock.Eagle
canal soeati nsect sandpest sf orexampl erats,mol esandbi rdswhi ch
dest roycr ops.
Pathogens: Causesdi seasesi nlivestockandcr opst herebyl ower i
ng
qualityofpr oduce.I ncr easecostofpr oducti
onwhencont rolmeasur es
areimpl ement ed.Introducet oxi csubst ancesintoagr icul
tural products
therebyl oweringt hequal i
tyoft hepr oduce.Cancausedeat ht ocropsand
animal s.

Eff
ectsofBi oti
cFact orsonAgr icultur
alProducti
on
1.Pests
Feedoncr opsther ebylower ingquant i
tyofagri
cul
tur
alproduce.
Feedongr ainstherebyaf f
ectingviabil
i
tyoftheseeds
Actasdi seasev ectors
Lowerpal atabil
ityofcr oppr oduce
Increasecostofpr oduct i
onwhencont rolmethodsareappli
ed
Creat eentrypointsfordi seasecausi ngorgani
sms
2.Parasites
Irr
it
at el
ivestock
Causesanemi ai nlivestock
Somebl ockaliment arycanal

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Lowerr at eofpr oduct i

oni nlivestock
Increasecostofpr oduct ionwhencont rolled
Somel owerqual it
yofhi desandski ns
Someabsor bfoodmeantf orthel i
vestockt herebyl ower i
ngt helevel of
product i
on.
Somef orexampl et ickst ransmi tdiseasecausi ngor ganisms.
CLI MATI CFACTORS.
Cl
i
mat i
cf act orsinclude:
Rainf all
Poorr ainfalldi
str i
but ionr esultstowi lt
ingofcr ops
Excessr ai
nfallcancausesoi lerosion
Excessr ai
nfallcanr esultt ocropf ail
ureduet of l
oodi ng.
Thef ouraspect sofr ainfallwhi chaf f
ectagr icultural productioninclude:-
Rainf allAmount
Rainfallamountr ef erst oquant it
yofr ainfal
lr eceivedi nagi venar eafora
peri
odofoney ear.Rai nfallamounti smeasur edusi ngar aingaugei n
mill
imet ersperannum.Theamountofr ainfalldet erminest hecr opsgr own
inanar ea.
Rainf alldistri
bution
Thisrefer st othespr eadofr ainfalloverthey ear.Rai nfalldi
stri
butionisv er
y
poorinKeny aandt her eforei r
rigati
oni snecessar yt osuppl ementt heshor t
supply.
Rainf allreli
abil
ity
Thisrefer st othecer t aintywi thwhi chagi venamountofr ai
ni sexpectedi na
giv
enpl acei nthey ear .
Rainf allIntensity
Thisrefer st othest rengt hwi t
hwhi chr ainfalls;itist hereforemeasur edi n

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ter
msofamountperhour .
Rainfal loflowi ntensi tyispr eferredasi timpr ov eswat erinf i
lt
rat
ioni ntot he
soilandcausesl esssoi ler osion.
Temper atur e
Temper atur eist hecol dnessorhot nessofapl ace.
Temper atur eismeasur edindegr eesCel siususi ngat her momet er .
Temper atur eisi nfluencedbyal titudeandt opogr aphy .
Temper atur edecr easeswi thincr easei nal ti
tude, sucht hatf orev ery300
met ersr i
sei naltitudeabov eseal evel t
emper at uredecr easesby 1. 7-2.2
degr eesCel sius.
Eachcr ophasat emper aturer angewi thi
nwhi chi tcangr owreferredt oas
thecar dinal rangeoft emper ature.
Forcr opst ogr owwel landpr oducehi ghy iel
ds, theyr equi reanar row
temper at urer angewi thint hecar dinalranger ef er redtoasopt i
mum r ange
oft emper ature
Effectsoft emper at ureonagr i
cul t
ur e
Lowt emper atur e
Slowgr owt hr ate.
Hi ghi ncidencesofdi seasesuchasCDBi ncof f
ee.
Impr ovementofqual i
tyi ncr opssuchast eaandpy rethrum.
Hight emper ature
Hi ghev apor ationr atehencewi l
tingi ncrops.
Hast ent her at eofmat urit
yduet oincreasedgr owt hrate.
Impr ovementofqual i
tyi ncr opssuchaspi neappl esandor anges.
Incr easei nci dencesofdi seasessuchasl eafr usti ncof f ee.
Incr easedi ncidencesofpesti nfestationsuchasaphi dsi nvegetabl es.

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Effectsofal t
itudeonagr iculture
Keny ai sdi videdi ntothr eeecologi cal zoneswhi chi ncl
ude;
Lowal ti
t udezoneo-1500met ersabov esealev el
Medi um al ti
tudezone1500-2500met ersabov eseal evel
Highal titudezoneabov e2500met ersabov eseal ev el
Cropsper form di fferentlywhengr owni neachoft heseecol ogicalzonesand
thereforeeachcr ophasi tsmostsui tabl ezonef ormaxi mum per f
ormanceas
i
llustr
at edbel ow.
Wi nd
Windr eferst oai ri
nmot ion.
Bel owi sal i
stofef f
ect sofstrongwi ndonagr iculturalproduction.
Blowi ngandbr i
ngingr ainbear i
ngcl ouds
Dest r
uct i
onoff arm st ructur
es
Strongwi ndmaycour sel odgingi nweakpl ants.
Wi nder osi ononbar eland
Incr easesr at eofmoi stureevapor at ion
Incr easespr eadofpest sanddi seases
Agentofdi sper sal.
Pol l
inat ionincr ops.
Light
Lighti st hesour ceofener gywhi chpl antsrequir
ef orphot osynthesi
s.
Dur ingphot osy nthesis, pl
antsmanuf acturefoodusi ngwat erandcarbon
dioxi dei nt hepr esenceofsunl i
ghtandchl orophy l
l
.
Aspect sofl ightt hatinfluenceagr icul tur
e
i
) . Li ghti nt ensity.
Thi si st hest rengt hwi thwhichl ighthi tsthesur f
aceoft heear t
h.
i
i) Li ghtdur ation

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Thisi stheper iodoft i

met hepl ant sareexposedt ol ightr ecor dedusi nga
Campbel lsunshi ner ecor der
Photoper iodism
Thisi sther esponseofpl ant st owar dlightdur ation.
Longdaypl ant s
Thesear epl ant swhi chr equi remor ethan12hour sofl ight ingt oflower
andpr oducef ruitsorseedse. g.somewheatv arieties
Shortdaypl ant s
Thesear epl ant swhi chr equi rel essthan12hour sofl ight i
ngt oflower
andpr oducee. gMai ze
Dayneut ralplant s
Thesear epl ant swhi chpr oducef l
ower sregar dlessoft hedur ati
onof
l
ightingt heyhav ebeenexposedt oe.gTobacco.
i
ii)Lightwav elengt h:
Thisr eferstot het ypeorqual ityofl i
ght.Awav elengt hist hedi stance
betweent wocor respondi ngpoi ntsofal ightwav e.
Chlorophy l
labsor bscer tai nwav elengthsofl i
ghtwhi char enotpr esentin
arti
fi
ci all
ightunl essi tisul trav ioletorinfrar ed.
NB/Gr eenhousescanbeusedt ocont rolthet emper atur e,r elativehumi dity
andlightdur ationandi ntensi ty.
RelativeHumi dity.
Thisi stheamountofwat erv apourhel dbyai ratagi v ent emper ature.
Athighhumi dityt her ateofev apor ati
oni slowandv icev ersa.
EDAPHI C/ SOILFACTORS
Soilisami xtur eofweat her edr ockanddecay edor gani cmat ter.
Itsuppor tspl antgr owt hbypr ov idinganchor agenut ri
ent sandwat er.
Topsoi lcov ersmostoft heear t
handi tcont ainsmi ner als, or ganicmat ter,

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air,wat erandl ivingor gani sms.

SoilFormat i
on
Soil i
sf ormedt hrought hepr ocessofweat hering.
Weat her ingi st hebr eakdownandal terati
onoft heparentr ocknearthe
earth’ssur face.
Par entr ocki sf ir
stbr okeni ntosmal lerfragment sandev entual
lyint
o
i
ndi vi
dual const i
tuentmi ner als.
Thei ndi vidual mi neralscombi net of ormt hesoi l.
Weat her ingi sacont inuouspr ocessandi ttakeshundr edsofy earsto
form acent imet eroft hesoi l.
Weat her ingi nvol vesbr eakdown( disintegration)andbui ldi
ngup
(synthesi s) .
Weat her ingpr ocessi si nfl
uencedbyt hef ol
lowi ngfactors.
Climat e.
Par entmat eri
al.
Topogr aphy .
Livi
ngor gani sms.
Time.
Agent sofTheWeat heringPr ocess.
Phy sicalagent s.
Inthiscasenochemi cal changesar ei nvolved.
Thesei ncl udewi nd,wat er, mov ingi ceandt emper atur
e.
Strongwi ndscar rymat er i
alswhi chhi tagainsteachot herandbr eakint
o
smal lerf ragment s.
Raindr opshi tthegr oundwi thsomef orcecausi ngsoilerosion.
Mov i
ngi cecausesr ockst odi si
nt egrate.
Hight emper aturesint hear idar eascauset her ockst oatdi f
fer
entrates.

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Dur i
ngt heni ght , temper at uresdr opmaki ngt her ockt ocont r
act .Ther ock
surfacecont ract sf ast ert hant hei nside.Thi sunequal contractioncauses
ther ockst odi si ntegr ate.
Inpl aceswi thv er ylowt emper atur e,wat erget si ntot hecr acks, freezes
andbecomesi ce.Aswat ert urnsi ntoi ce,itincr easesi nv olumepushi ng
ther ockapar thencedi sintegr at ion.
Biologi calagent s.
Thisi nv olvesl ivingor gani sms.
Largeani mal sl i
keel ephant sandcat tl
eexer tpr essur eonr ocksast hey
mov ecausi ngt hem t obr eak.
Mansact iviti
essuchasmi ni ng, quar r yi
ng, roadconst ruct i
onandear th
mov ingbr eaksr ocksi ntosmal lerf r
agment s.
Bact eriaandf ungi helpi nt hebr eakdownofpl antandani mal ti
ssues
(decomposi tion) .Thesemat erialsar ei ncor por atedi nt othesoi l.
Ter mi t
esandmol esbr i
ngt ot hesur facel argequant i
tiesoff inemat erials.
Thispr omot esweat her ingbyaer at i
ngl owerl ay ersoft her ocks.
Root sofpl ant sf orcet hei rwayt hr oughr ocksmaki ngt hem t odi si
nt egrat e.
Theyal sopr oduceaci dsdur ingr espi rationwhi chdi ssol vesr ockmi ner als.
Decay edr oot smaymi xwi thwat erf ormi ngor ganicaci dswhi chdi ssolv es
rockmi nerals.
Chemi calagent s.
Thisi st hedecayordecomposi tionoft her ocks.I tinv olvest hef oll
owi ng
processes.
Car bonat ion.
Ast her ainfal l
st hrought heat mospher e,itdissol vessomeCo2f or ming
weakcar boni caci d.
Ov ert i
met hisaci dreact swi tht her ockmi neralspar ticularl
ycal cium

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car bonat ecausi ngdecomposi ti

on.
Rai nwat er + car bon( i
v )oxide Carbonic
acid.
Car boni caci d + Li mest one Calcium
bicarbonat e
Thecal ci um bicar bonat ef ormedi nthisreactioni ssol ublei nwat er
causi ngwat ertoev entual l
ydi ssolvetheent irerock.
Oxi dat i
on.
Oxy genr eact swi thmanyel ement sfoundi nr ockscausi ngt hem t o
disintegr ate.
Sol uti
on.
Hy drol ysis.
Hy drat i
on.
Fact or sInfluenci ngSoi l Format ion
Par entr ockmat erial
Thi sinf l
uencest hephy sicalandchemi cal proper t
iesoft hesoi lsuchas
Thet ext ureoft hesoi le.g.gr ani t
egivescoar segr ainedsoi l
.
Mi ner alcomposi ti
onoft hesoi le.g.r
ockscont ainingcal cite,feldsparand
ferro-magnesi um mi neral sproducedeepheav ysoi l
sr i
chi nnut ri
ents.
Ther ateofsoi lfor mat i
one. g.limestonei seasi l
yweat her edinwar m
humi dr egionsandt hecar bonat esareeasilysolubl e.
Sincet hepar entmat erial i
nfluencest hephy sical andchemi cal properti
es
oft hesoi l,
itther eforecont rolst hetypeofv egetat i
oni nanar ea.
Climat e
Hight emper aturespeedupt her ateofchemi cal react i
ons.
Wi ndact sasat ranspor tagentandcar ri
est heweat heredmat er i
alsfrom
onepl acet oanot her .Wher eal otofweather edmat erialsar edeposi t
ed,

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thesoi l
sar edeepandr i
chi nnut r
ients.
Rainfallprovideswat erwhi chi sani mpor tantr eagentduri
ngthe
weat heringpr ocess.Al otofr ainmaycauser ockstobreakhasteningthe
weat heringpr ocess.
Topogr aphy (Relief)
Thisist heshapeoft hel andi nrelati
ont ot heunder ly
ingrockofthe
earth’ssur f
ace.
Itmayqui ckenorsl owt heweat heri
ngpr ocess.
Thesl opeaf fect sthedept hoft hesoil andki ndofv egetati
ongrowingin
anar ea.
Soilsfoundi nf latlandandl owl yi
ngar east endt obemor efert
il
ethan
thosef oundonhi ghersl opes.Suchar eashav edeepersoi l
s.
Onast eepsl ope, erosioni shi ghandsuchar eashav eshall
owsoi l
s.
Livingorgani sms( Bioticf act ors)
Thepr esenceoft hev ariousagent sofbi ologi calweatheri
ngspeedsup
thepr ocessofsoi lformat i
on.
Time.
Thepr ocessofsoi lformat ioni sv er
ysl owandt akesalotofti
me.
Deepmat uresoi l
sar ef oundwher esoi lformi ngprocesseshavetaken
placeov eral ongper iod.
Ifthepar entmat eri
al isresi stanttoweat heringagent s,
mor eti
mei s
requiredf orthesoi ltomat ur e.
Areaswi thsev eresoi lerosionhav eapoor lydi ff
erent
iatedsoi
lprofi
le.

SOILPROFILE
Thi
sisthever
ti
calar
rangementoft
hesoilhori
zons(l
ayer
s).
Thehor
izonsshowsoill
ayer
satdif
fer
entstagesofdevel
opment
.

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Soilformingpr ocessesareconti
nuousandt hesoil
devel
opsindept
h
resulti
ngint heformati
onoft hedisti
nctsequenceofsoill
ayer
s.
Thel ayer
sdi ff
erfrom eachotherintermsofcol our
,or
ganicmatt
er
content,chemi calcomposit
ion,porosi
ty,depthandthearr
angementof
soilparti
cles.

Thehor i
zonsar e;
Superficiall
ay er .
It’
sathi nlayerconsi sti
ngofdeaddecay i
nganddecayedorganicmat
ter
coveri
ngt hesoi l.
Topsoi l(HorizonA) .
Itl
iesbeneat ht hesuperfi
ci
allayer.
Itcontainsal otofhumushencei t’
sdarkerthantheot
herl
ayers.
It’
swell aeratedandcont ai
nsact i
veli
vingorgani
sms.
It’
swell drai
nedandr i
chinplantnutri
ents.
Mostoft heroot sar
ef oundhere.
Subsoi l(HorizonB) .
Foundbeneat ht het
opsoi l
.
Mor ecompact edandl essaerat
edt hantopsoil
.

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Maycont ainani mper meabl elay ercalledt hehar dpanwhi chmaypr ev

ent
drainageandr ootpenet rati
on.
Mi neralsleachedf rom topsoi laccumul ateher ehencet hislayeri
s
referredt oast hel ayerofaccumul ati
on.
Ithascl aydeposi ts.
Subst ratum/ weat heredr ock( Hor i
zonC) .
Madeupofpar t
lyweat heredr ocks.
Hasnohumus.
Har dandi mper meabl etowat er.
Root sofbi gt reesmayr eacht hisl ayeranddr awwat erf rom itduri
ngthe
dryseason.
Par entrock/ Bedr ock( HorizonD) .
It’
sf oundbeneat ht heweat her edr ock.Soi lisf ormedf rom t hi
srock.It
maycont ainpondsofwat er.
NB/.Bet weenanyt wobor deringsoi l l
ayer s,therei sat ransi t
ionalzone
wherebyonel ay ergr aduall
ymer gesi ntot henextonei ntheser i
es.
Thesoi lprof i
lei nfl
uencesagr icultureinthef ollowingway s.
Topsoi lcont ai nsmostoft hesoi lnutri
ent s, well aeratedandhassoi l
mi croorgani sms.
Awel ldev elopedpr ofi
lehol dsmor emoi sturef orpl antuset hanashallow
one.
Loosel ypackedsubsoi lall
owseasyr ootpenet ration,drainageand
aer ati
on.
Nat ureandcomposi t
ionoft hebedr ockdet er minest hemi neral
component soft hewhol esoi l
.
SOILCONSTI TUENTS
Mi neralmat ter.

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Themi neral composi t

ionoft hepar entrockdet erminest hemi neral
const i
tuent soft hesoi l.
Themi neral mat t ermakest hef ramewor koft hesoi l.
Ithol dst her oot sf irml yint hesoi lgi v
inganchor aget opl ants.
Bet weent hepar ticlesar espaceswhi char efil
ledwi thwat erandai r.
Di
agram
Organi cmat ter.
Whent hedeadmat erialsrot, theyar edecomposedbybact eri
aandf ungi
tof ormt hesoi lor gani cmat ter.
Humusi sdeador gani cmat terwhi chi si
nt hest at eofcont i
nuous
chemi cal decomposi t
ion, t
ransf or mat ionandconst ruction.
Humusi nthesoi l impr ovest hesoi lstructure.
Humuscont ainspl antnut r
ient ssuchassul phat es,nitrates, phosphat es,
calcium, magnesi um, pot assi um et c.
Air.
Thesoi l cont ainsal l thegasessuchasni t
rogen, oxygen, Co2andt herare
gases.
Av ail
abi li
tyofai rint hesoi lisi nfluencedbyt het ypeoft hesoi land
amountofwat eri nt hesoi l
.
Oxy geni sneededbypl antsdur ingr espiration.Itisal sor equi r
edby
micr oor ganismsi nt hesoi ldur ingdecomposi ti
onandni trogenf ixati
on.
ExcessCo2i nt hesoi lispoisonoust oplant sandmi cr oor ganisms.
Forbestcr opper formance, abal anceofsoi l
wat erandsoi lairhast obe
mai nt ained.
Wat er .
Soil cont ainswat er.Soi l
wat erexi stsi nthreef orms;
Super fl
uouswat er .

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Thisi swat eroccupy inglargeai rspaces( macropor es).

Thi swat eri sl oosel yhel dbyt hesoi landt hereforeeasi lylost.
Thewat erisr eadi l
yav ail
abl et opl antsbutnotusef ulbecauseexcess
wat eri nt hesoi l br i
ngsaboutpooraer ation.
Alotofwat eri nt hesoi lcausesl eachi ngofnut r i
ents.
Capi llarywat er.
Thisi swat eroccupy ingsmal lpores( mi crospores) .
I
tishel dwi t hgr at erf orcebysoi lparticl
es.
I
tisav ailablet opl ant sandact sasasol ventforpl antnut ri
ents.
I
tisal sor efer redt oasav ailabl ewat er.
I
tleav esmostoft hemacr opor esempt yal l
owi ngaer ationoft hesoil.
Hy gr oscopi cwat er .
Thisi swat ert hatf ormsat hinf il
m ar oundt hesoi lpar t
icles.
I
tisf irml yhel dbysoi lparti
cl esmaki ngi tnotav ail
abl etopl ants.
Claypar ticl
eshav eal otofhy groscopi cwat erbutsandysoi lscontainver
y
l
itt
lehy groscopi cwat erbecausesandypar t
icl
eshav eweakerf orces.
I
mpor tanceofwat ert oplant s
Asol ventf orpl antnut ri
ents.
Rawmat erialsf orphot osy nt hesis.
Dur ingt ranspi rat ionpl antsl oseal otofwat erhenceacool ingeffecton
them.
Wat ermakespl antcel l
st urgi dhencesuppor t
.
Livingor gani sms( bioticfact ors)
Theyar ei mpor t anti nthesoi linthepr ocessofdecomposi tion.
Theyar edi v i
dedi nt o;
Soilmi cr oor gani sms
Theyi ncl udebact er ia,fungi andpr otozoa.Theyhel pindecomposi ti
on

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process.
Somebact eri
ae. g.Rhizobium spphel psinnitrogenf i
xationinl egumes.
Somemi croor gani smsar ehar mf ulbecauset heycausedi seases.
Soilmacr oor gani sms
Theyar el argeror gani
smsf oundi nthesoi lsuchasmol es, earthworms,
termites, ant sandpl antroot s.
Theybur rowi nt hesoi laeratingthesoi l
andmaki ngi tl
oose. .
PHYSI CALPROPERTI ESOFTHESOI L
Soilstruct ure
Thisref er stot hephy si
cal appear anceofsoi laccordingt ohowt he
i
ndiv i
dual soil particl
esar ear ranged, packedoraggr egated.
Thesoi lst r
uct uret ypeisdet er minedbyt hegener alshapeoft he
aggregat es.
Soilstruct urecl assi sdet ermi nedbyt hesi zeoft heaggr egates.
Thesoi lst r
uct uregr adeisdet erminedbyt hest abil
i
tyorcohesi venessof
theaggr egat es.

Typesofsoi lstructures
Singl
egr ai
nedst r
ucture.
Thereisnoaggr egationatall
.
Parti
cl
esar enotcement edtogether.Thepar t
icl
esar
enon-por
ousand
spheri
cal.
Mostlyfoundi nt hetopsoilofsandysoils,ari
dcli
matesandal
kal
inesoi
l
s.
Crumbysoi lstructure.
Theaggr egatesar esmal l
,softandporousi r
regul
ari
nshape.
Aggregatesar enotcl osel
yfit
tedtogether.
Granularsoilstructure.

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Theaggr egat eshav ei rregul arshapecal ledgranules.

Soi li
sv erypor ouswhenwet .
Struct urei sf oundi nt het opsoi lofcul t
ivatedsoilsandint hesubsoi l
of
soilsundergr assorbush.
Prismat icsoi lst r
uct ure.
Aggr egat ear ear rangedv ertically
.
Thev er ti
cal axi sofeachaggr egatei sl ongerthant hehori
zontal axi
s.
Whent het opsar er ounded, theyar esai dt obecolumnarandwhent hey
hav ef latendst heyar epr i
smat ic.
Platysoi lst r
uct ure.
Theaggr egat esar ear r angedont opofoneanot heri nt
hinhorizontal
plates.
Thest ruct urehaspoorper meabi li
ty, drainageandr ootpenetrati
on.
Struct urei smost lyf oundi nt ophor izonofsoi l
sint hef
orestandi nclay
soils.
Blockysoi lstruct ure.
Aggr egat esar ear rangedi nr ectangul arbl ocks.
Aggr egat eseasi l
yf ittoget heral ongv er t
icaledges.
Impor tanceofSoi lSt r
uct ur eonCr opPr oducti
on
Soi lstruct urei nfl
uences:
Soi laer ation.
Soi ldrainageandwat erhol dingcapaci ty.
Plant sr ootpenet rabi l
ityandanchor age.
Mi crobi al activit
iesi nt hesoi l
.
Circul ationofgasesi nt hesoi l.
Thef ollowi ngf armi ngpr acticesi mpr ov ethesoilstruct
ure
Appl icat i
onofi nor gani cmanur eint ot hesoi l
.

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Til
lingt hel andatt her i
ghtmoisturecontent
.
Cropr ot ation.
Mini mum t il
lage.
Cov ercr oppi ng.
Mul ching.
Soil t
ext ure
I
tr eferst ot her el
at i
vepropor
ti
onoft hevari
oussizesofthemi
ner
al
particlesofsoi l.
Alsodef inedast hecoarsenessorf i
nenessofthesoil
whenfel
tbet
ween
thef i
nger s.
Differentsoi l parti
cleshavedif
ferentsi
zesasshownbel ow.
Par ti
cle Size(Di
ameter)inmm

St ones Abov e2.00mm

(Gr av el)
Coar sesand Bet ween0. 20–2.00mm
Finesand Bet ween0. 02–0.20mm
Silt Bet ween0. 002–0.02mm
Clay Bel ow0.002mm
Determi nat i
onofSoi lText ure
Thi scanbedonet hrough;
Mechani calanalysis.
Chemi calanalysi
s.
Mechani calanalysis
Apparat us
Gardensoi l,si
evesofdi fferentmeasuredmeshdi
amet
er,
cont
ainer
sand
weighingbal ance.

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Procedure
Putaknownamountofsoi lsampl ei ntoacont ai
ner .
Crusht hesoi llumpswi thoutbr eakingt hepar t
icles.
Passt hesoi lthr ought hesi ev ewi tht hel argestmeshdi amet er(2.00mm)
andshakev igor ousl y.
Wei ghthesoi l thatr emai nsont hesi eveandr ecord.
Repeatt hepr ocessusi ngot hersi ev eswi thmeshdi amet ersof0.2mm,
0.02mm and0. 002mm al way susi ngt hesoi lthatpassest hrought he
previoussiev e.
Observation
Soilparti
clesl ef tonf irstsi eveofmeshdi amet er2.00mm ar ecalled
gravel.
From thesecondsi ev eof0. 20mm; coar sesandpar ti
cles.
From thet hirdsi ev e( 0. 02mm) ; fi
nesandpar ticl
es.
From thef our thsi ev e( 0.002mm) ;sil
tpar ti
cles.
Alltheparticlest hatpasst hrought hef our t
hsi evear ecl aypar t
icl
es.
Importanceofsoi l text ur eoncr oppr oduct ion
Infl
uencessoi lfer til
ity.
Affectstheor gani cmat tercont ent .
Infl
uencest hedr ainageoft hesoi l.
Infl
uencessoi laer ation.
Infl
uenceswat erhol dingcapaci ty
Infl
uencest hecapi l
larityormov ementofwat erint hesoi l.
NB/Basedont ext ure, soil canbecl assi f
iedas;
Sandysoi l
.( 50- 80%sand, 20-50%si l
tandcl ayand0. 1-
3%or ganicmat t
er)
.
Aremadeupofl ar gel ysandpar ti
cles( coar set extured).
Hav elargeai rspaceshencepoori nwat err et
ention.

27
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Easyt ot ill(li
ghtsoi ls)
Lowf ertil
ityduet oleachi ngofmi neral
s.
Easilyer oded.
Freedr aini ng.
Thesesoi lscanbei mpr ovedbyaddi ti
onoforgani
cmat terandfer
ti
li
zers.
Sil
tyloam ( 20-30%sand, 70- 80%si ltandcl
ayand0. 1-4%organi
cmat t
er).
Fi
net extur ed
Well drained
Goodwat erhol dingcapaci ty.
Moder atelyf ertil
eandaer ated.
Areaaci dict omoder at
epH.
Clayeyl oam soi ls.(20-50%sand, 20-60%sil
tandclayand0. 1-6%organic
mat t
er ).
Poor l
ydr ainedandaer ated
Fi
net extur ed
Highcapi llari
tyandwat erhol dingcapacit
y.
Sli
ght lyaci dict oslightlyal kaline.
Richinpl antnut r
ients.
Diff
icul ttowor konwhendr yorwet .
Aresui tabl ef orfloodi rr
igat i
onofcr opsli
kerice.
Clayeysoi ls.(>40%cl aycont ent)
Madeupofl argelycl aypar ticles.
Havesmal lpor espaceshencegoodi nmoist
ureretenti
on.
Diff
icul ttot il
l (
heav ysoi ls)
Poor l
ydr ained.
Expandwhenwet ,crackwhendr y.
Highcapi llari
ty.

28
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Richinpl antnut rients.

Aresuitabl ef orf l
oodi rrigat i
on.
Theycanbei mpr ov edbydr ai
nage.
Loamysoi ls.( 30-50%sand, 50-70%si ltandcl ayand0. 1-4%or ganic
mat t
er).
Moder atelyt ext uredanddr ained.
Sli
ghtlyaci dic.
Donoter odeeasi ly.
Easytowor kon.
Hav eagoodwat erholdi ngcapaci ty.
Theyar et hemostsui t
abl ef orcr oppr oduct i
onsi ncet heycont aingood
amount sofpl antnut ri
ent sandor gani cmat ter.
Theycanbei mpr ov edfur therbypl ant i
ngcov ercropst omai ntainferti
li
ty
andbyaddi ngmanur esandf ertil
izers.
SoilColour
Thisdependsont hemi ner alcomposi tionoft her ockandt heor ganic
mat t
ercont ent .
Soil
scont ainingal otofi ronar ebr owni sh,yellowishorr eddishincol our.
Soil
swi thal otofsi l
icaar ewhi te.
Soil
swi thal otofhumusar edar korgr ey .
Soilcolouri nfluencest hesoi ltemper ature.
Darksoi l
sabsor bandr et ainmor eheatt hanl i
ghtcol ouredsoils.
Relati
velyhi ght emper at uresi nthesoi lenhancemi crobialacti
v i
ty.
SoilpH
Thisreferst ot heaci di
tyoral kalinityoft hesoi lsoluti
on.
Iti
sdet ermi nedbyt heconcent rationofhy drogeni ons( H+)orthehy droxyl
i
ons( H-)int hesoi l
ssolut ion.

29
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pHi smeasur edusi ngt hepHscal ewhi chrangesf r

om 1- 14.
ApHofl esst han7meanst hatthesoi lsolutionisacidic.
ApHofmor et han7meanst hatthesoi lisalkali
ne.
pHof7i sneut ral.
Ast hehy droxy lionsi nt hesoili
ncr ease,thesoi lbecomesmor ealkal
ine
andv icev ersa.
InfluenceofSoi lpHonCr opGr owt h
Det erminest het ypeofcr opt ogrowni napar ti
culararea.
Af f
ect sthet ypeoff er t
il
izertobeused.
Af f
ect stheav ailabi
li
tyofsomenut ri
entse.g.atl owpHphosphor ousand
mol ybdenum ar elessav ail
ablewhi lehighpHmakesmanganese,
pot assium, iron, boronandzi nclessav ai
lable.
Ver yacidicorv er yalkalinecondi t
ionsaf f
ectact ivi
ti
esofsoi l
mi croorgani sms.
Modi fyingSoi lpH
Thefollowi ngar eappl i
edt ot hesoilinor dertoloweri tspH( Increasesoil
aci
dit
y )
Appl icati
onofsul phur .
Appl icati
onofaci di
cf er ti
l
izerssuchassul phateofammoni a.
I
nraisingi tspH( incr easeal kal i
nit
y)thef oll
owingi sdone.
Appl icati
onofl imewhi chi sabasi ccompoundwhi chraisest hesoilpH
aftersomet ime.
Appl icati
onofbasi cf ertil
i
zers.

Agr
icul
tur
alEconomi
cs
Agr
icul
tural
economicsisdef
inedasanappli
edsci
encethatai
msat
maximi
zingoutputwhi
lemini
mi zi
ngcost
s,bycombi
ningtheli
mit
edr
esour
ces
30
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ofland, capi tal, l

abourandmanagementt opr oducegoodsandser v i
cesf oruse
byt hesoci etyov eraper iodoft ime.
Basi cEconomi cConcept s
Scar city.
Thef act orsofpr oduct ionsuchasl and, capit
al,labourandmanagementar e
scar ceorl imi ted.
Thef armert her eforemustdeci deonhowt oallocatet hef ew/ scarcer esources
tothemanycompet ingpr oductionneeds.
Prefer enceandChoi ce
Sincet heav ailabl eresour cesarel i
mi tedandpr oduct ionneedsar emany ,a
farmerhast omakeachoi ceofhowt oall
ocatet heser esour ces.
Af armert her efor ehast ochooseoneorsev eralenter prisesf rom v erymany .
Thechoi cemadei sdet ermi nedbyf actorssuchasneedsoft hesoci ety,
farmer ’
spr efer enceandecol ogi
cal condi ti
ons.
Oppor tunityCost
Sinceachoi cehast obemadef r om v erymanycompet ingent erpri
ses, some
revenuehast obef or egone.Forexampl e,apieceofl andmaybesui tablefor
thepr oduct i
onofmai zeandwheat .
Ifaf ar merchoosesogr owmai ze,ther eturnst hatthef ar merwoul dhav e
obtai nedf rom wheati sfor egone.
Thef oregoner et urnsar ecal l
edt heoppor t
unitycost .Oppor tuni tycosti sthe
revenuef oregonef rom t hebestal t
er nativ
e.
Farm Recor ds
Thesear edocument skepti nthef arm showi ngf arm act i
vit
iesov eraper iodof
time.
Theyshoul dbeneat , conci seandcompl eteshowi ngact ual amount s, weights,
measur ement sordat es.

Usesoff
armr
ecor
dst
oaf
armer
Hel
ptodet
ermi
net
hev
alueoft
hef
arm/det
ermi
neasset
sandl
i
abi
l
iti
es.

31
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Providehi storyoft hef arm.

Assisti nplanningandbudget inginv ariousf i
el ds.
Helpst odet ectl ossesort heftinthef ar m.
Assistswhenshar i
ngl ossesorpr ofits( div
idends)f orcommunal owned
farms/par t
nershi p.
Helpt oset tl
edi sputesi nthef arm amonghei rs.
Helpt osuppor tinsurancecl aim e.
g.agai nstfireandt hef
t.
Providel abouri nformat i
onl i
ket er
mi nal benef i
ts,NSSFdue, Saccodues
forallempl oyees.
Helpt ocompar etheper formanceofdi ffer
entent erpri
seswithinaf ar
m or
otherf arms.
Helpint heassessmentofi ncomet axt oav oidov erorundertaxation.
Recor dshel ptoshowwhet herthef arm busi nessi smakingpr ofi
tor
l
osses.Thi sinfor mationhel psinobt ainingcr edit.
Ty
pesofFar m Recor ds
Product ionRecor ds
Theyshowt het otalyieldandt hey i
eldperuni tofeachent erprisesuchas
thetot alnumberofl it
r esofmi lkfr
om t hewhol eherdandf r
om eachcow.
Name Day si nthemont h TOTA
/No. LS
ofcow 1 2 3 et
c
A P. A. P A P
M M M M M M
1
2
3
4
etc

32
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Tot
als

Inventor
yrecords
Theyshowal ltheassetsont
hefarm e.
g.l
ivest
ock,machiner
y,buil
dings,
cropsetc.
Theyar edi
videdintotwo;
Consumabl egoodssuchasanimalfeeds,f
erti
l
izer
s,f
uel,
pestici
deset c.
Permanentgoodssuchasmachi nery,f
armtoolsandequipment,
buildi
ngsetc.
Consumabl eGoodsI nvent
ory

Recei
pts Issues
Dat
e Commodi
ty/
Item Quanti
ty Dat
eIssued Quant
it
y Balance
to in
Stock

Per
manentgoodsI
nvent
ory

Dat
e Commodi
ty/
Item Quant
it
y Wr
it
ten Bal
ance Comment
of
finStock

Fi
eldOperati
onsRecords
Theyshowalltheacti
vi
ti
esbeingcar r
iedi
nthefi
eldsuchasdateof
pl
oughing,pl
anti
ng,f
erti
l
izerusedetc.
Theyhelptoworkoutthecostofproducti
onforeachfi
eldatt
heendof

33
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theseason.
BreedingRecor ds
Theyar ekepttoshowt hebr
eedingacti
vit
iesandpr
ogrammesf orvar
ious
animalsont hef arm.
Therear edi
fferentbreedi
ngrecordsdependingont
heanimalsbeing
rear
ed.
FeedingRecor ds
Theyshowt het y peandamountsoffeedsusedt of
eedtheanimals.

Dail
yfeedi
ngrecordforthemonth
of…………………………………………………………
Enter
pri
se……………………………………………………………………………………...
Typeoffeed…………………………………………………………………………………….
Date No.of Amount Amount Bal ance Remar
ks
Animals Recei v
ed Used inStock
(kg) (
Kg) (Kg)

Healt
hRecor ds
Theyshowt hehealthcondi t
ionsoftheanimals.Theyshowwhenact
ions
suchasv acci
nati
onsanddewor mingaret
obedone.
Theyhelpintheselect
ionoft hebr
eedingstock.Theyal
sohel
pin
cal
culat
ingthecostoft reatment.
Date Disease Animal (s) Dr ugs Costof Remarks
sy mptom af fected used t r
eatment

Market
ingRecor
ds
Theyshowthecommodi
ty,
quant
it
y,amountsol
d,dat
e,r
ateperuni
toft
he

34
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commodit
y,t
otal
val
ueandwher esol
d.
Commodi
ty……………………………………………………………
Date Amount Pr iceper Tot al Where Remar
ks
sol
d unit Value sol
d
(kshs) (ksh)

LabourRecor ds
Theyshowt het ypeofl abour,
dateofempl oyment ,r
ateofpayment,
ski
lledandunski lledlabour.
Theyar edividedint otwo;
Must erRoll–t hi
scheckst henumberofday sworkedforandt her
efore
determi nehowmucht obepai dtoawor ker.
Thisr ecordshowst henameoft hewor ker,payr
ollnumber,dayswor ked
for
, rateofpay ment ,t
heamountofsal aryandsi gnatur
e.
Must erRoll
Name Pay Days Days Rat e Tot al Signature
of Rol l Worked of Pay of
Person No. Pay ( Kshs) Wor kers.
12345 (kshs)
Mr.X 08 25 @100/ 2, 500/-
-
Mr.Y 09 25 @100/ 2, 500/-
-

-LabourUt
il
isat
ionAnalysi
s.Theyshowhowl abourisut
il
izedont hefar
m and
helpstodet
erminelabourall
ocat
ion;l
abourr
equirementforthepurposeof
budgeti
ngwhenl abouri
sinpeakdemandorwhent olayoffunproducti
ve

35
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l
abour
.

Noof Livest
ock Crop Machi
nery Dat eof Remar
ks
hour
s Producti
on Pr
oduct
ion Mai
ntenance Wor
king
Worked

Total
cost

CROPPRODUCTI ON1
LANDPREPARATI ON
Landpr epar ati
oni nvol
vesal lt
heact i
viti
est hatmakelandsui
tabl
eforpl
ant
ing
suchas
–ploughi ng/ diggi
ng
-
har r
owi ng
-
ridging
-
roll
inget c
Apieceofl andt hathasbeenpr eparedf orplanti
ngiscal
l
edseedbed.I
na
seedbedt hepl antingmat erial
sger minateandgr owt omatur
it
yandare
harvestedf rom samepl ace.
IMPORTANCEOFLANDPREPARATI ON
-
Toki lltheweeds.
-
Encour agewat eri
nf i
lt
rat
ioni nt
ot hesoi l
.
-
Toaer atet hesoi l
.
-
Incor poratemanur eandot herorganicmat teri
ntot
hesoil
.
36
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-Todest r
oyst agesofcr oppest ssuchaseggs, l
ar vae,pupaoradul ts
buryingt hem, exposi ngt hem t ot hesunsheatorpr edatorsandst arvi
ng
them.
-Toencour ager ootpenet r
at i
oni nt othesoil
.
-Tomakesubsequentoper ationspossi bl
ee.g.plant i
ng,fertil
i
zer
applicat i
on, rolli
ngandr i
dgi ng.
OPERATI ONSI NLANDPREPARATI ONS
Theyinclude;
Landcl eari
ng.
Primar ycul ti
v ation.
Secondar ycul tivation.
Tertiaryoper at ions.
LANDCLEARI NG
Thi
sist her emov al ofv eget at i
oncov erfrom thesurfacebef or etil
l
age.Thi sis
donetopr epar elandf orcul tivationandasmet hodofl andr eclamat i
on.Land
cl
eari
ngi snecessar yundert hef ol
lowi ngconditi
ons.
Whenopeni ngupav irginl and.
Wher east alkgr owi ngcr opwaspr evi
ouslyplantedsuchasmai ze.
Wher elandwasl eftf all
owf orl ongt ime.
Wher ethei nter valbet weenpr imar yandsecondar ycul t
ivationislongsuch
thatt helandhasr ev ertedt ot heor i
ginalvi
rgi
nst ate.
MethodsofLandCl ear i
ng
Treef elli
ng.Axes, pangasandpowersawsar eusedt ocutdownt rees.
Bulldoz ersandr ootr aker sar eusedi nfel
li
ngt r
eesonal argescal e.
Remov al ofst umpsandt rashl at erfoll
ows.
Burning.Thev eget ationcov eri ssetabl aze.Themet hodshoul dbe
discour agedasi tdest roy sthesoi lorganicmat t
er,soilmi croorgani sms

37
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andpl antnut rients.

Slashi ng.Thi si sdonet ocutsmal lbushesandgr assesusi ngsl ashers,
pangasort ract ordr awnmower s.
Useofchemi cal s.Chemi calsusedt okil
lweedsar ecal ledher bicides.
Primar yCul tivat i
on
Thi
sfol lowsl andcl ear ing,
Smal lscal ef armer susej embesorf orkjembesdur inghanddi gging.
InLar gescal ef rami ngpl oughi ngisdoneusi ngmoul dboardordi scplough.
Ot herf armer suseoxpl oughs.
Primar ycul ti
v ationshoul dbedonebef oret heonsetoft her ains.This
ensur est hatal l othersubsequentoper ationsar edonei ngoodt ime.
I
mpor tanceofPr i
mar yCul tivat i
on
Tor emov eweeds.
Tobur yor gani cmat terf oreasydecomposi ti
on.
Tof acili
tatewat erinfil
t r
at i
onandaer at
ion.
Todest roysoi lbor nepest sbyexposi ngt hem t opr edat orsandt hesun.
Tomakepl ant i
ngeasy .
MethodsofPr i
mar yCul ti
vation
Handdi gging.Thi si sdonebyuseofj embes, mat tocksandf orkj embesto
cutandt urnt hesoi l
slices.
Mechani calcul t
ivat i
on.Thi sistheuseoft r
act ordr awni mplement ssuch
asmoul dboar danddi scpl oughs.Subsoi lers,cultivatorsandchi sel
ploughsar eusedt obr eakt hehardpan.Subsoi l
ingi st hepr ocessof
cul ti
vatingt hesoi l witht hepur poseofbr eaki ngupt hehar dpan.Har d
pansmaybef or medduet ocont i
nuoususeofheav ymachi neryont he
l
and.
Impor t
anceofsubsoi ling

38
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Breaki ngupt hehar dpanhencei mpr ov i

ngdr ai nage.
Impr ov i
ngsoi laer ation.
Bringingt othesur facel eachedmi nerals.
Impr ov erootpenet ration.
Useofanoxpl ough.Thi si stheuseofpl oughsdr awnbyoxen, donkeysor
camel s.Themet hodi sf asterandmor eef fi
cientt hanhandculti
vati
on.It
’s
commoni nar easwher elandi sfairl
yf l
at .
Thefoll
owi ngaspect sshoul dbeconsi deredwhencar ryi
ngoutprimary
cul
tiv
ation.
TimeofCul t
ivat i
on
Landshoul dbepr epar edbef oret heonsetoft herainssoast o;
Giveenought imef ort heweedst odr yupanddecomposei ntoorganic
mat ter .
Toal lowCO2andot hergasest odiffuseoutoft hesoilwhil
ebeing
replacedbyoxy gen.
Giveenought imef orsubsequentoper ationst obedonehencegi vi
ngway
toear lyplanting.
Dept hofCul tivat i
on
Thisisdet erminedby ;
Typeofcr opt obepl anted.Shal lowr oot edcropsdonotdeepcul ti
vati
on.
Deepr ootedcr opsr equi redeepcul t
ivation.
Typeoft hesoi l.Heav ysoi lsarehar dwhendr ymaki ngj
embesandf or
k-
jembest odigshal lowl y.
Thei mpl ement sav ailable.Tr actordrawni mpl ement sgivedeeperdepth
thanhandoper atedt ool s.
Choi ceoft heCor r
ectI mpl ement s
Thisisdet erminedby :

39
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Condi ti
onoft hel and.I ft hel andhasal otofst onesandst umps, adi sc
ploughi spr efer redbecausei trol l
sov ertheobst acl
eswi thoutbr aking.
Typeoft het il
t hr equi red.Ver yf i
net il
threquiresdifferentt ypesof
i
mpl ement s.
Dept hofcul tiv ation.Whendeepcul ti
vationisrequir
edheav yimpl ements
areused.Li ghti mpl ement sar eusedwhenshal l
owcul t
ivationisneeded.
Topogr aphyoft hel and.Tr act ordr awni mplement scannotbeusedwher e
thesl opei sv er yst eep.
Impl ement sav ailabl e.Af armercanonl yusewhati slocal lyavail
abl e.
Shapeoft hel and.Somel andshapesmaynotal lowt ractordr awn
i
mpl ement st obeusedef fi
cient lye.g.wher etherear eacut ecorners.
Sizeoft hel and.
Secondar yCul ti
v ation
Thisf ol l
owspr imar ytillage.
Thisi nv olv est her ef i
nementoft heseedbedbef oreplant i
ng.
Itisal sor eferr edt oashar rowi ng.
Smal lscal ef ar mer scanusepangas, j
embes, fork-j
embes, andgar den
rakest obr eakt hesoi l clodsandpul v
erizethesoi l
.
Largescal ef ar mer susef act orsdr awnhar r
owssuchasdi schar rows,
spiket oot hedhar r
ows, springt inehar rows.
I
MPORTANCEOFSECONDARYCULTI VATION
Tor emov eanyweedst hatmi ghthav eger minatedimmedi atel
yaf ter
primar ycul tivat ion.
Tobr eakt hesoi lclodsi ntosmal lpiecesf oreasyplant i
ng.
Tol ev elt hef iel dsoast oobt aint heuni f
orm dept hofpl anting.
Incor por at eor gani cmat t
eri ntot hesoi linordertoencour age
decomposi tionbef or epl anting.

40
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Fact
orsdet ermi ningt henumberoft imessecondar ycultivati
oni sdone.
Sizeoft hepl ant ingmat erials.Smal lseedsr equir
eaf inetil
tht hanlarge
seeds.
Slopeoft hel and.I fthel andi shi l
ly,lessnumberofsecondar ycul ti
vati
ons
arepr eferredt odi scour agesoi l erosion.
Moist urecont entoft hesoi l.indr ysoi lslessoper ationsar epr efer
redso
astoconser vet hesoi lmoi st ur e.
Condi ti
onoft hel andaf terpr imar ycul tivation.Ifafterprimar ycul t
ivat
ion,
alotoft r
ashi slef t,mor ehar rowi ngoper at i
onsshoul dbecar ri
edoutso
astoi ncor por atet het rashi nt ot hesoi l
.
Terti
ar yOper ations
Theyar ecar riedoutt omeett heneedsofcer tai
ncr ops.
Theyar econduct edaf t
erl andcl ear i
ng, primar yandsecondar y
cult
ivat i
ons.Theyi nclude;
Ridging
Thisist hepr ocessofdi ggi ngsoi linacont i
nuousl ineandheapi ngiton
onesi det of or m ar i
dge( bund)andaf urrow.
Theser i
dgesar eusedi npl ant ingcr opssuchasI rishpot atoes, cassava,
groundnut set c.
Ridgesf aci l
it
at et uberexpansi onandeasyhar vestingoft her ootcrops.
Furrowsar emadewhenpl ant ingsugar cane.
Theyhel pt oconser vesoi landwat er.
Roll
ing
Thisisdonet ocompactt hesoi lwhichi sl ooseoroff inetil
th.
Thisisdonet opr ev entsmal lseedsf rom bei ngbl ownawaybyt hewi nd
andt opr ev entsoi lerosion.
Thisal soi ncreaseseedsoi l cont act.

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Heav yr ollersar eusedi nlargescal e.

Lev eling
Thisi smaki ngt hesoi l
surfacef l
atanduni formt opr omoteeasy
germi nat i
onofsmal lseededcr ops.
Rollingensur esuni form ger minat ionofseeds.
MINIMUM TI LLAGE
Thi
si stheuseofacombi nationoff armi ngpr acticest hatdist
urbsoilt
heleast
.
Thesefar mi ngpr acticesi nclude;
Appl icat i
onofher bicidesincont rolli
ngweeds.
Timi ngcul t
ivati
on/ ti
mel yweedi ngoft hepr ev i
ouscr op.
Mul chi ng.Mul chpr ev entsweedsf rom gr owing.
Rest rictingcul t
ivati
ont othear eawher eseedsar etobeplanted.Weedsin
ther estoft hef i
eldar econt roll
edbysl ashing.
Establ ishi ngacov ercr opont hef ield.
Upr oot ingorsl ashingweedsi nper ennial crops.
Reasonsf orcar ryi
ngoutmi nimum t ill
age
Reducet hecostofcul ti
vati
on.Byr educi ngt henumberofoper ati
ons.
Tocont rol soilerosion.
Tomai nt ainsoi lstr
uct ure.
Toconser vesoi lmoi sture.Cont i
nuouscul t
ivationexposest hesoilt
o
sun’ sheathenceev apor ati
onofsoi lmoi sture.
Topr ev entr ootandunder groundst ructuresdi sturbance.
Topr ev entex posur eofhumust oadv ersecondi t
ionssuchassun’ sheat
thatcausev olatil
izationofni trogen
Soi
lFertili
tyI :( Organi cManur es)
Soi
lFertili
ty :Thi sist heabi li
tyoft hesoi l topr ovidet hecropswi t
htherequir
ed
nutr
ientsinpr operpr opor ti
onsf orhi ghpr oduct i
on.

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Char act eristicsofFer ti

leSoi ls
GoodDept h:Deepsoi lgi v espl antsgr eat erv olumet oobt ai nnut ri
entsand
al sopr ov ideanchor age.
Goodwat erhol dingcapaci ty:Thisensur est hatwat erisr et ainedwel lfor
pl antuse.
Pr operdr ai nage:Wel ldr ai nedsoi l
sar ewel laer atedf acili
tat ingheal thy
r ootdev elopment .
Cor rectsoi lpH.Di fferentcr opshav ediff erentnut r
ientr equi r
ement s.
Adequat enut r i
entsuppl y .Itshoul dsuppl yt hecr opswi t
ht henut r
ients
t heyr equi rei nadequat eamount s.
Fr eef rom excessi v ei nfest ati
onofsoi lbor nepest sanddi seases.
HowSoi lLosesFer t
il
ity
Leachi ng.Sol ubl emi ner alsar ecar r
iedt ol
owerhor i
zonsbey ondt her eachof
plantr oot s.
Monocr oppi ng.Gr owingonet ypeofcr opcont inuousl yf oral ongt i
mel eadst o
theexhaust ionofcer t
ainmi ner alst hatt heplantuses.
Changeofsoi lpH.Changesi nt hesoi lpHaf f ectt heact iv i
tyoft hesoi l
mi cr oor gani smsandt heav ailabi li
tyofcer t
ainsoi lnut ri
ent s.Useofsome
fertilizer scanchanget hesoi l pH.
Cont inuouscr oppi ng.Cr opst akeupal otofnut ri
ent sdur ingt hei rgr owthwhi ch
arenev err etur nedt othesoi l.Thi smakest hesoi l defici
entoft hesepl ant
nut rient s.
Bur ni ngofv eget ationcov er.Thi sdest roy stheor gani cmat terhence
dest ruct i
onoft hesoi lstruct ur e.
Soi ler osi on.Whent hef er ti
let opsoi li
scar ri
edaway ,thesoi ll
osesi tsferti
l
ity
.
Accumul ationofsal ts.Thi sisasr esul tofirregul arrainf allandi nsuf fi
cient
remov al ofsal tsf r
om t hesoi l especi allyinthear idandsemi ar idar eas.
Accumul ationofsal tsi scal ledsal i
nisat i
on
Mai nt enanceofSoi lFertili
ty
Cont rolofsoi ler osiont oenhancesoi linfi
lt
rat ionont othesoi landr educe
sur facer unof f.
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Weedcont roltopr ev entcompet i

tionf ornut ri
ent s.Wat erspaceandl i
ghtwi t
h
crops.I talsor educespest sanddi seases.
Car ryi
ngoutcr opr ot ation, thishel pst ocont rol accumul ati
onofcr oppest sand
diseasesont hef ar m.I talsohel pst oensur emaxi mum ut il
izationofnut rients.
Useofi nor gani cf er ti
lizershel pst oaddnut ri
ent st ot hesoi l
e. g.CAN, DAP,
Ureaet c..
Useofor gani cmanur ehel pst osuppl yor ganicmat tert ot hesoi l.
Mi nimum t il
lagewhi chhel pst omai ntainsoi lstr uct ureandpr ev entsoilerosion.
Intercroppi ng( Mixedcr oppi ng)ofl egumi nousandnon-l egumi nouscr opsf ix
nut ri
entsandi mpr ov ef ertili
ty.
Properdr ainagebybr eaki nghar dpansorcr eationofwat erchannel sthi s
ensur espr operaer ation.
Cont rolofpHt oal mostneut raltoensur epr operf unct i
oni ngofmi cro-
organi smswhi chhel pi ndecomposi ti
onofor gani cmat ter.
Organi cManur es
Theyar eobt ainedf rom pl antandanani mal remai nsaf terdecomposi ti
on.
Rol e/Impor tanceofOr gani cMat ter
Impr ovessoi lst ruct ure–aer ation, dr ainageabsor pt ionandr etenti
on.
Impr ov ewat erhol dingcapaci tyoft hesoi l
.
Incr easessoi lfer til
itye. g.car bonni trogenet c.
Itpr ov i
desf oodandshel tert osoi lmi croor gani sms.
Hel pt okeepPHofsoi lst able( Buf ferssoi l pH) .
Reducest oxici tyofpl antpoi sonst hathav ebui l
dupi nthesoi lasar esult
ofcont i
nuoususeofpest icidesandf ungi cideset c.
Humusgi v essoi ldar kappear ancemaki ngt hesoi l toabsor bheat.Thi s
moder atessoi ltemper at ure.
Probl emsAssoci at edwi t
ht heuseofOr gani cManur es
Bul kiness–t heyhav el ownut riti
vev alueperuni tv olumehencer equi red
inl argev olumes.
Labor iousi nappl icationandt ranspor tation–t hi sisduet otheirbulkiness.

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Theyspr eaddi seases, pestsandweeds–i .

e.iftheyaremadefrom
mat er
ialsthatar econtami nated.
LossesofNut rients–i ftheyar epoor l
yst or
ed, sol
ubl
enutri
entsareeasi
l
y
leachedandsomebecomev olatil
izedwhenexposedt othehotsun.
Ifusedwhennotf ull
ydecomposedt heplantdoesnotbenef i
tfr
om them.
TypesofOr ganicManur es
Theyareoft hreetypes:
GreenManur e.
Farm Yar dManur e(FYM)
CompostManur e.
GreenManur e
Itismadeofgr eenpl antswhi char elefttogrowunt il
flower
ingandthen
areincorporatedi ntothesoi lthroughpl oughing.Thecropsusedincl
ude;
cowpeas, groundnut s,Lucer ne,beans, sunfl
oweret c.
Characteri
sti
csofPl antsusedasGr eenManur e
Shouldbel eafyorhi ghlyvegetativ
e.
Shouldhav ehi ghni t
rogencont enthencel eguminousonesar epref
err
ed.
Shouldhav eaf astgrowth.
Mustbecapabl eofr ot
ti
ngqui ckly
.
Shouldbehar dyi .
e.Capableofgr owi nginpoorcondi t
ions.
ReasonsWhyGr eenManur eisnotCommonl yUsed
Mostcr opsusedf orgr eenmanur ear efoodcr ops
Takestimef orthemanur etodecomposedel ayingpl
anting
Mostoft henut r
ientsar eusedupbymi cro-or
ganismsint hepr ocessof
decomposi ngthegr eenmanur e
Greenmanur emi ghtusemostoft hesoi lmoistureandleav everylit
tl
efort
he
nextcrop
Farm YardManur e(FYM)
Thisismi xtureofani mal waste(urineanddung)andcr opremainsused

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asani mal beddi ngs.

Thequal i
t yofFar m Yar dManur ei sdet ermi nedbyt hef oll
owi ngf actors.
Ty peoft heani malused–
Dungf rom f atteni nganimal shasahi ghl ev elofnut ri
ent st hant hatf r
om a
dai rycow.
Nonr umi nant ssuchashensandpi gsgi vev eryrichdungi nter msof
nut rients.
Ty peoff oodeat en-nut ri
ti
ousfeedst uffsgi vemanur ewi t
hmor enut rients.
Ty peofl i
t terused–woodshav ingsandsawdustar esl owt odecompose
andcont ainv er ylittl
enut ri
entsascompar edtol egumi nousoneswhi ch
giv emanur er i
chi nnut r
ients.
Met hodofst orage–f ormanur et or etaini tsnut r
itivest atus,itmustbe
stor edi npl acewi thal eakpr oofr oofandaconcr etefloor .
Ageoft hef army ardmanur e–wel lrottenmanur ei srichi nnut r
ient sand
iseasyt oappl y .
Prepar ationoft hef ar m Yar dManur e
Pr ov i
demat erialssuchasgr assorwoodshav i
ngsi nt heani mal houset o
ser veasbeddi ng.
Ani mal sdeposi ttheirdr oppingsandur i
neont hebeddi ngandmi xt hem
byt rampl ing.
Aftersomet imeCol lectt heusedani mal beddi ng/ l
i
tterandot herrot tenpl ant
residues;
Storecol l
ect edmat er i
al sunderr oof/shedt opr ev entleachi ngandoxi dization
ofnut ri
ent s;
Turnov ert hemat erialsr egularl
y;
Sprinklewat eri fdr y;
Leav et hemat er i
al torotcompl et elybef oreuse
CompostManur e
Thi si sat y peofmanur emadef rom decomposedmat er i
alssuchas
kitchenr ef use, plantandani mal remai ns.
Thef oll
owi ngf act orsar econsider edwhensel ectingthesi tef ormaki ng

46
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compostmanur e.
Wel ldr ai nedpl ace–t hi
sav oidswat erl
oggi ngwhi chmaycausel eaching
ofnut rient s.
Direct iont hepr evaili
ngwind–t hisai msatpr eventi
ngbadsmel lsfrom
beingbl ownt ot hehomest ead.
Sizeoft heFar m –t hesit
eshoul dbecent r
al l
ypl acedont hef arm.
Accessi bili
ty–t hi
smakest ranspor tati
onoft hemanur epossi ble.
Pr
eparationofCompostManur e
Ther ear et womet hodsofpr epar i
ngcompostmanur e;
Indor eMet hod( pi
tMet hod)
FourHeapSy st em (StackMet hod) .
I
ndor
eMet hod( pi tMet hod)
Api t1. 2m l ongby1. 2m wideand1. 2m deepi smade.
Temat er ialst obecompost edar epl acedi nl ayersinthef ol
lowi ngor der
;
Fibrousmat erialssuchasmai zest alksformt hef oundat i
on.
Theyar ef ollowedbyal ayerofgr ass, l
eavesoranyki tchenr efuse
mat er ial.
Al ay erofwel lrottenmanur eist henappl iedt oprov i
denut r
ientsf orthe
mi croor gani sms.
At hinl ay erofwoodashi sappl iedt oimpr ov et helevel ofphosphor ous
andpot assi um i nthemanur e.
Al ay eroft opsoi l
isthenaddedt oi ntroducemi cr
oorgani smst hatar e
requi redt odecomposet heor gani cmat erials..
Theabov esequenceofl ayersi srepeat edunt il
thepiti sfull
.
Al ay erofsoi lisaddedt ocov erthepi t
.
Dur ingt hedr yseason, t
hemat erialsshouldbekeptmoi stbyaddi ngwat er
.

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Fi
v epitsareduginseri
esandmat eri
alsfil
ledasfol
lows:
Pit
sI ,I
I,I
IIandIVarefi
l
ledwi ththemat er
ialsasdescr
ibedabove.
After3-4weeks, t
hemat erial
sinpitIVar etransf
err
edtopitV,mater
ial
sin
pi
tI I
ItoIV,inpitI
Itopi
tIIIandinpi tItopitII.
Processisr epeat
edunti
l themat eri
alsarewel lr
ott
enthentakent
othe
fi
l
edascompostmanur e.

Pi
tI Pi
tII Pi
tII
I Pi
tIV Pi
tV

FourHeapSy st
em (StackMet hod)
I
nt hi
smet hodfourheapsar eused.
Themat er
ialsusedaresimilart
othoseusedint
hepi
tmethod.
Constr
ucti
on
Vegetat
ionisclearedfr
om theground.
Posts2m higharef i
xedataspacingof1.2by1.
2m f
ormi
ngthecor
ner
s

48
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oft heheap.
Woodpl anksar ef i
xedont hesidest oformthewal lsandmat er
ialsare
arrangedasi nt heI ndoremethod.
Mat eri
alsarepl acedi ntheheapsl abeledXandaf ter3-4weekst heyare
transferr
edtopi tY.
Af t
eranother3- 4weeks, t
hecompostmat er
ialsaretr
ansferr
edtopi tZ
wher etheystayf orsome3- 4weeksbef oretheybecomer eadytobe
takent othefield.
Themanur eshoul dbet ur
nedoccasi onall
ytof aci
l
itat
eairci
rcul
at i
on.
Ast ickisdri
veni nt
ot hestackanangl etocheckt hetemperatur
e.
Ifthetemper atur einsidei
shigh,itiscorrect
edbyaddi ngwater.
Di
agr
ams

WATERSUPPLY, IRRIGATI ONANDDRAI NAGE

WATERSUPPLY
TheHydrol
ogi calCy cle
Wat erfrom t hesurfaceev apor
atesuptheatmosphere,
coolsand
condensest of orm clouds.
Saturatedcl oudsf all
downt ot
heearthaspreci
pit
ati
oninform ofr
ain.
Thiswat err eturnsbackt otheatmospheresthr
oughtheprocessofevapo
-t
ranspiration.
Theci r
cul ati
onofwat erfrom t
heeart
h’ssurf
acetotheatmosphereand
backagai niscal l
edthe

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Hydr ologi calCy cle

SourcesofWat er
Theyi nclude; surfacewat ersources, undergroundwatersour cesandrain.
Surfacewat ersour ces
Theyi nclude;
Rivers, streamsanddams.
Lakes
Under groundwat ersour ces
Theyi nclude:
Springs.
Wel l
s.
Borehol es.
Assignment .
Makeshor tnot esont hev arioussour cesofsur f
aceandunder groundwat er
.
Rainwat er.
Thisiscol lect edf rom r oof t
opsandst oredi ntanks.Pondscal alsobedugt o
col
lectt her unof f.Rainwat eri sverypur ecompar edtotheothersour ces.
WaterCol lect i
onandSt or age
Dams.
Adam i sabar ri
erconst r
uctedt ost orewat er.Damscanbemadeofear th
orconcr ete.
Grassshoul dbepl antedont heembankmentt opreventsoilerosi
on.
Wei rs.
Wei rsar eusedt or aiset hewat erlev elinar i
vertofaci
li
tatepumpi ng.
Wat ert anks.
Thesear emadeofconcr ete,stone, met alsheets,pl
asti
corr ubber.They
shoul dbecov eredtopr ev entwat ercont ami nati
on.

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PumpsandPumpi ngofWat er
Pumpi ngi st hel ift
ingofwat erfrom onepoi ntt
oanot herbyuseof
mechani cal for ce.
Typesofwat erpumps
Cent ri
fugal /rotar dynami cpumps.
Piston/ reci procat i
ngpumps.
Semi -rotar ypumps.
Hy dram.
ConveyanceofWat er
Thisi st hepr ocessofmov ingwat erf r
om onepoi nt(sourceorstorage
point)t owher eitwi l
l beusedorst ored.Thiscanbedonet hr
ough;
Piping
Inthiscasewat ermov esthroughpi pes.
Typesandchoi cesofpi pes
Met alpi pes
Thesear eexpensi vebutdur abl e.Theyalsocanwi thstandhi ghpressure.
Plasticpi pes
Theyar echeapandeasyt oinstall
.Howev ert
heycanbur stunderhighwater
pressure, canbr eakwhenexposedt othesunandcanbegnawedbyr odents
suchasmol es.
Hosepi pes
Theyar eei thermadeofr ubberorpl asti
c.Rubberonesar emor eexpensive
andmor edur ablet hant heplast i
cones.
Useofcont ainer s
Container ssuchasj errycans, drumsandpot sareusedt odrawwat erand
arecarriedbyv ariousmeanssuchasbi cyclesandani mal s.

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Useofcanal s
Wat erisconv ey edfrom ahi ghpointtoalowerpointal
ongaslopeespeci
all
y
forirr
igat ionpur poses.
Gener al UsesofWat erontheFarm
Domest icuse–cooki ng,dri
nking,
washing
Cool i
ngani mal s
Rear i
ngf i
sh
Wat eri
ng/i rrigat
ionpl ant s
Cleaningcal fpens, milkingsheds
Wat eri
ngl i
v estock/dr inki
ng
Dil
uting/di ssolvingchemi calusedtocontr
olpests,
parasi
tesandweeds
Mixingconcr et ei
nconst ructi
on
Cool i
ngandr unningmachi neengines
Processingf arm pr oduceegcof f
eehides,car
rot
s
Recreationegswi mmi ngpool s
WATERTREATMENT
ImportanceofWat erTr eatment
Killdiseasecausi ngmi croorganisms.
Remov echemi cal impuriti
essuchasexcessf luori
de.
Remov ebadsmel l
sandbadt astes.
Remov esedi ment sofsol i
dpar ti
clessuchassoil
andsand.
ProcessofWat erTr eat ment
StageI : Fi ltr
at ionofwat erintake.
-Wat erfrom Sour ceRi verismadet opassthr
oughaser i
esofsieves.
-Lar gepar ti
clesofi mpur it
iesar etrappedbyt
hesieves.
-Wat erthenent ersi nt
ot helargepi petobedi
rect
edt ot
hemi xi
ng
chamber .
StageI I: Sof teni ngoft hewat er
Watercirculatesi nthemi xi
ngchamberanddosesofsodaasht osoftenthe
52
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water.
St ageII
I:Coagul at
ionandsedi ment ati
on
Wateri spassedt hroughcoagul ati
ont ankwher efr
eshai renter
st oremovebad
smell/chlori
deofl imeused.
Waterst aysfor36hour sthussolidpar t
icl
essettl
eandbi lharzi
ascausing
or
gani smski l
led.
Al
um i saddedt ocoagulatesolidpar t
icl
eswhi chsett
leatt hebottom.
St ageIV:Fi l
trati
on
Wateri spassedt hroughf i
lt
rat
iont ankwi t
hlayersofsandandgr avelt
ofil
teri
t.
Waterl eavi
ngt hefilt
rati
ontanki sclean.
St ageV:Chl orinat
ion
Wateri spassedt hroughchl or
inati
ont ankwher echl
orinei sadded.
Micro-organi
smsi nthewat erarekill
edbychl ori
ne.
St ageVI:St orage-Thet reatedwat erisstor
edinl argeoverheadtanks
bef oredistri
butionanduse.

Di
agr
am

Wat
erTreatmentbyBoi
l
ing
Boil
ingki
ll
sgermsinwat
ersuchast
hosecausi
ngbi
l
har
zias,
chol
eraand
ty
phoid.
I
RRI
GATION
Thi
sisthear
ti
fi
ci
alappli
cat
ionofwat
ert
othesoi
ltosuppl
ycr
opswi
th
suf
fi
ci
entmoist
ureforgr
owth.

53
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I
ti susual lypr act i
ced;
I
ndr yareas.
Dur i
ngdr yper iods.
I
nt hegr owi ngofpaddyr ice.
Gener alimpor t
ance’ sofI rri
gat i
on.
Enablecr oppr oduct i
ondur ingdr yseason
Reclaim ar i
dandsemiar idl andf orfar ming
Supplementr ainfallincr oppr oduct ion
Helppr ov i
desenoughwat ert ocr opst hatr equireal otofwat erliker i
ce
Createsf avour abl et emper aturef orpr operpl antgr owt h
Enablesuppl yoff ertil
izerini rri
gat ionwat er
Makepossi bl et ogr owcr opsi nspeci alst ruct ureslikegr eenhouse
TypesofI rr
igat ion
Factorsconsi der edwhenchoosi ngt ypeofi rr
igationsy stem
Capitalav ai
labi li
ty-thisdet ermi nest het y
peofi rri
gat i
onsy stemst obeused.
Dri
pandov er headi rrigationsy stemsr equirehi ghcapi t
al f
ori nstallati
onand
maintenance
Topogr aphy -Sur f
acei rr
igat i
onr equi resf latar eas
Waterav ail
abi l
ity-Sur facei rri
gat ionr equir esal otofwat er .Dr i
pandov erhead
i
rri
gat i
onr equi resl esswat er
Thet ypeofsoi l-Sur facei rrigationi sbestsui t
edf orcl aysoi lsbecauset hey
ret
ainwat erf oral ongt ime.
Thet ypeofcr op/v alueoft hecr op/benef itanalysis.Cr opt obei rri
gated
shouldbeofhi ghv aluet oj ustifyt heirr i
gat i
oncost
Theav ail
abil
ityofcl eanwat er–dr ipandov er
headi rr
igationr equi r
escl ean
watert oprev entbl ockageoft hesy stems
Sur f
aceI r
rigation
Wat erisbr oughtt othecr opf i
eldsf rom t hesour cebyuseofcanal sor
furrows.Thef ol l
owi ngmet hodar eusedher e;FloodI r r
igation, Furrow
I
rrigati
onandBasi nI r
rigation.
Thef ollowi ngf act orsar econsi der edwhenchoosi ngt hemet hodt ousei n
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sur f
acei rrigat i
on.
Topogr aphy -Sur facei r
rigationr equiresf l
atar eas
Wat erav ailabi l
ity -Sur facei rri
gat i
onr equiresal otofwat er.
Thet y peofsoi l-Sur f
acei rri
gat i
oni sbestsui t
edf orclaysoil
sbecause
theyr et ainwat erf oral ongt ime.
Fl
oodI rrigat ion
Theent i
ref i
eldi sf l
oodedwi thwat er .
Themet hodi scheapt oest ablishandmai ntainbutt her
eisunev en
distribut i
onofwat ert ocr opsandal otofwat eri swast ed.
Fur rowI rr
igat ion
Irr
igat ionwat erf lowsf rom canal sintof urrows. .
Fur rowsshoul dbemai nt ai
nedbyr epai ri
ngwhener odedorwor nout,
remov ingt heweedsandsi l
t.
Adv ant ages
Cheapt oest abl ishandmai ntain.
Requi resl i
ttleski lltomai ntain.
Reducesf ungal diseasessuchasbl i
ghtsi ncet her eisnowet nessont he
l
eav es.
Disadv ant ages
Soi ler osi onmayoccur .
Al otofwat erisl ostt hroughev apor ati
onandseepage.
Basi nI r ri
gat i
on
Anar eaencl osedbywal lscalledembankment s/l
ev eesisfl
ooded.The
met hodi scommoni nt her i
cegr owingar eas.SuchasMweaTeber e,
Aher o, Buny alaet c.
Sub- Sur faceI rrigat ionandDr i
p/ Tri
ckleI rr
igati
on
Thi si nv olv esl ay ingper foratedpi pesunder groundt oallowwat ert opass
outt hr ought inyhol esandwett hesoi laroundt hezonesoft hecr op.
Advant ages
Mi nimi zesl abourr equirementespeci allyinchangi ngofwat erpipes.

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Mi nimi zespossi blet hef tofwat erpipes.

Economi zesont heuseofwat er.
Canbepr acticedonbot hsl oppyandf latland.
Ther ei snosoi ler osion.
Nogr owt hofweedbet weent herows.
Wat erunderl owpr essur ecanbeusedasl ongasi tcanf l
owalongthe
pipes.
Cont rolsf ungal di seasessuchasbl ightbecausewat erdoesnot
accumul at eont hel eav es.
Ther ei snoneedofconst ructi
ngdy kes,levelingormaki ng
Disadv ant ages
Expensi vet oinst all.
Pipescanbebr okendur ingweedi ngorl andpr eparati
on.
Noz zlescangetbl ockedmaki ngi rr
igationi neffi
cienthencet hemethod
requi rescl eanwat er.
Ov er head/ Spr i
nkl erI r
rigat ion
Int hiscasewat eri sappl iedt othepl antsi nf or
m ofspr ayusingspri
nkl
ers
orwat eringcans.
Thespr i
nkler sandpi pesusedmustbemai ntai
nedasf oll
ows.
Lubr icat ingt her ot ati
ngpar tstoreducef ri
ct i
on.
Repai ringanybr okenpar ts.
Cleani ngt ounbl ockt henozzl es.
Advantagesofspr i
nkl eri rri
gat ion
Thereisev endi stribut ionofwat eroverthear ear equir
ed
Lesswat eri sr equir ed/l esswat erwast age
Canbepr act i
cedonsl oppyl and
I
tispossi blet oappl yf ol i
arfer tili
zerswi thirri
gat i
onwat er/ferti
gati
on
I
rri
gationpi pes/spr i
nkl erscaneasi lybemov edf rom onear eatoanother
I
rri
gationwat ercl eansof fdustf rom plantleav esf orbetterfuncti
oning
Helpstocont rol aphi ds.
Disadv ant ages

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Expensi vet oinst all.

Encour agesf ungal diseasessuchasbl ightandcof feeberrydi seasedue
towet t
ingoft hel eav es.
Cancausesoi l erosi oni fnotwel l cont rolledespeci all
yonsl oppygr ound.
Mayr equi retheest abl i
shmentofawi ndbr eak.
Mai ntenancei sexpensi veasi tr equi resal otofski ll
Factorsconsi deredi nchoosi ngi rri
gat ionwat erpi pes
Durabi l
it
y -Shownbyt hequal i
tyoft hemat erialst hepi pesar emadeof
Lengthoft hepi pes-Thi si sdet er minedbyt hesi zeoft hef arm andt hesour ce
ofwat er/wat ersuppl ypoi nt.
Diamet eroft hepi pe-Det er minest hev olumeofwat ertobeconv ey edint he
pipes
Wat erpr essur e-Hi ghwat erpr essur er equi resst rongpi pest opreventbur sti
ng
Resistancet oheatf rom t hesun-Pi pescr ackandbecomebr it
tl
esi fexposedt o
thesun
Resistancet opestdamage-Pl ast icpi pesar eeasi lydamaged/gnawedby
rodent s
Costoft hepi pes-Al umi nium pi pesmaybeexpensi vewhenusedf ori r
ri
gat i
on
Drainage
Thisi st her emov al ofexcesswat erfrom wat er l
oggedl and.Itisdonet o
reclaim mar shyar easf oragr i
cultur alpr oduct i
on.
Impor tanceofDr ainage
Toi ncreasesoi laer ation.Whenexcesswat eri sremov edf r
om t hesoi l
,
plantr oot sgetenoughai rf orgrowt h.
I
ncr easesoi lv olume.Dr ainagei ncr easest heamountofsoi laroundt he
rootzonemaki ngi tpossi bl eforpl antst oobt ainnut ri
ents.
Raisesoi ltemper at ure.Dr ainagei mpr ov est hear teatwhi cht hesoi l
becomeswar mf ormaxi mum pl antgr owt h.
I
ncr easemi crobialact ivi
ties.Pr operaer ationasar esultofdr ainage
i
ncr easest henumberofmi croor gani smsi nt hesoi l.
Reducesoi lerosi on.Wel ldrainedsoi lshav ehi ghwat erholdingcapaci ty
57
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whichhelpst oreducesur facer un-offi

ncr easingt heinfi
ltr
ationr at
e.
Remov etoxicsubstances.Whent her
eiswat er-l
ogging,saltsaccumul at
e
totoxi
clev el
sinthesoi l.Drai
nager emov essuchsal tsfrom thesoi l.
Methodsofdr ainage
Useofopendi tches/channels/furrows.
Dit
chesar edugf orwat ertoflowbygr avitylower ingthewat ert abl
e.
Useofundergroundpi pes
Perfor
atedpipesar elaidunder gr oundandwat erseepsi nt
ot hem, then
fl
owst oawat erway .Thepi pesar emadeofpl astic,
met al(steel)orclay.
Fr
enchdr ai
ns
Dit
chesar edugandf i
ledwi thst onesandgr avel andthencov eredwi t
h
soi
l.
Waterfrom thesur r
oundi ngar easeepsi nt otem t heflowstoawat erway.

Camberedbeds
Raisedbedsareconstr
uct
edincombi
nati
onwi
thdi
tchesi
nthepoor
ly
drainedsoi
lsuchasthebl
ackcott
onsoi
l
.

Mechani
cal
l
ypumpi
ng
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Inthel owl yingar easwher et heot hermet hodsofdr ainagecannotbe

pract i
ced, wat eri smechani callypumpedoutoft hesoi l
.
Plant i
ngofTr ees
Treessuchaseucal yptuscanbepl ant edi nwat erl oggedar easast hey
l
oseal otofwat ert hrought ranspi r
at ion.
WaterPol lution
Thi
sist hei nt r
oduct ionofhar mful subst ancesi ntot hewat er .
Agri
cultural Pract icest hatPol lut
eWat er
Useofi norgani cf ertil
izer s
Fertili
zer susedgetl eachedt hr ought hesoi landar ecar ri
edt owat er
bodi es.
Useofpest i
ci des
Excesspest ici desseepi ntot hesoi l andf i
ndt heirwayt ot hewat erbodies
causi ngpol l
ut ion.
Poorcul t
ivationpr actices.Thesepr act icesinclude:
Ov ercul tivation.Thi scausessoi ler osi onhencesi ltationi nwat erbodi es.
Ov ergr azing.Thi sal socausessoi l erosi onhencepol lutioni nwat erbodi es.
Cul ti
vat i
onal ongt her iverbanks.Al socausessoi l erosi onhencesi l
tati
on
i
nwat erbodi es.
MethodsofPr ev ent ingwat erPol lution
Soil conser vationmeasur est omi nimi zesoi lerosion.
Fenci ngofwat ersour cest omi nimi zepol l
uti
onbyani mal s.
Enf orcingi ntegr atedway sofcont r
ol li
ngpestandweedst hatdonotuse
chemi calssuchor gani cfarmi ng.
Plant i
ngv eget ational ongt her i
verbankst oav oidsi ltation.
Usingadequat est orm cont rol met hodsi nthear easexper iencingheav y
rai
ns.
FARM TOOLSANDEQUI PMENTREVI SIONQUESTI ONS
1 Thedi agr amsbel ow ar eoff armt ool sandequi pment .St udyt hem and
answert hequest ionst hatf ollow
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i
) I denti
fythetools 1mk
i
i)Giv
eonef uncti
onaldi
ff
erencebetweenthet
oolsabove. 1mk
2. Thedi agram belowshowf arm equi
pment.Usethem t
oanswert
he
quest
ionsthatfoll
ow.

a)Identi
fytheequipment
sM andL. (1mk)
b)Statethefuncti
onaldi
ff
erencebetweenM andL. (
2mks)
c)StateTWOcommonmai ntenancepract
icescar
ri
edoutonbot
hM and
L. ( 2mks)
3. Thedi agram bel
owshowsaf ar
m equipmentstudyi
tandanswer
sthe
quest
ionsthatfol
low.

60
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[
a] I denti
fytheequipment. [
1mk]
[b] Namet hepartsl
abeled. [
2mks]
W;X; Y;Z
[
c] Whati st hefunct
ionofthepar
tlabel
ledZ. [
1mk]
4. Studythedi
agr amsbelowandanswert hequest
ionst
hatfol
l
ow.

(a) Identi
fythet ools. A- B-C-D
(2mks)
(
b) Statethecor rectuseofeachoft hetool
sabove.
(2mks)
(c)Givetwomai ntenancepracti
cescarri
edoutontoolDf oref
fi
cientuse.
(1mk)
5 (
a) Namef ourtypesoft ool
susedi nsmoothingwood.
(2mks)
(b) Givethreer easonswhyf armt ool
sandequipmentshouldbewel l
1
maintai
ned.( 1/ 2mk )
6. Bel owisadi agram off ar
m equipment.Useittoanswerthequestions
thatf
oll
ow.

61
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a)I denti
fytheequi pment . (½ mk)
(b)Statetwor easonsf oryourchoi
cein(a)abov
e
(1mk)
b)St atetheuseoft heequi pment (1mk)
c)Namet hepar tslabell
edG,EandF. (1½mks)
d)I denti
fytwodr awbacksi nusingthi
sequipmentcomparedt
oother
s
thatmaybeusedf orthesamepur pose. (
2mks)
7. Identi
fythef armt oolandequi pmentil
l
ustr
atedi
nthediagr
am l
abel
edk
andLandgi v eoneuseofeachequi pment.

Equi
pment I
dent
it
y
Use
(a)K
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
...
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
L .
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.
(
b)Gi
vethecar eandmai ntenanceofL (
1mk

62
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8. Obser
vet
het
ool
sXandYi
l
lust
rat
edbel
owandanswert
hequest
ionst
hat
fol
l
ow:
-

a)I
dentif
ythetool
s. X;Y (2mks)
b)Stat
eoneuseofeachoft hefoll
owi
ngt ool
s. X;Y(2mks)
c)St
atethreemaint
enancepracti
cescarr
iedoutont
ool
X. (3mks)
9.Thediagram bel
owill
ust
rat
eawor kshoptool

I
dentif
ythetool…………………………………………………………………. ..
..
.(
1mk)
Namet hepartslabeledS,TandU (
3mks)
Stat
etheuseoft het ool
(1mk)
10. Studythediagramsofliv
est
ockpr
oduct
iont
ool
sbelowandanswer
questi
onsthatfoll
ow.

a)I
dent
if
ythet
ool
sE,
F,GandH. (
4mks)

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b)Stat
etwomaint
enancepract
iceoft
heequi
pmentE.(
2mks)
11. Bel
owaredi
agr
amsofwor kshoptool
s.

Statet
hefuncti
onsoftool
s. (
4mks)
(i
)………………………………………………………………………
(i
i
)……………………………………………………………………………
(i
i
i)……………………………………………………………………………
(i
v)……………………………………………………………………………
b)Whatisthenamegiventothemetal
li
cbr
ushwhi
chisusedtocleanout
woodchippingsfr
om t
ool(i
)above.
Studythedi
agramsofgardentool
sshownbel
owandanswerthequesti
on

t
hatfol
l
o
(
i)Stat
etwof
iel
dcondi
ti
onsunderwhi
cht
ool
Awoul
dbemor
esui
tabl
efor

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useincrop
Production (
2mks)
(ii
) Givethefunct
ionofthetooll
abel
ledC. (1mk)
(i
ii
)Statetwomai nt
enancepracti
cesofthetooll
abelledB.
(2mks)
13. Studythediagramsbel owl
abeledP,Q,
RandSr epresenti
ngsome
workshopt ool
sandt henanswerthequest
ionsthatfoll
ow.

a)identi
fyt
het
ools 2mks
Tool Name
P ………………………………………….
Q …………………………………………
R …………………………………………
S …………………………………………
b)Giveoneuseoftool
sPandRint
heconst
ruct
ionofawoodenfeed
tr
ough.1mk
P………………………………………
R……………………………………….
c)Howwoul dt
hetooll
abel
l
edQbeusedint
heconstruct
ionofacal
fpen?

65
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½mk
d)Givetwomai nt
enancepr
acti
cescarr
iedoutont
oolS. 1mk
14. Studythediagram bel
owoffar
mt ool
sandequipmentandanswer
quest
ionsthatfoll
ow.

(i
) I dentifyt
ool M andN (
1mk)
M……………………………………………………. .
N………………………………………………………
(i
i) Stateonef unctionaldi f
ferencebet weenM andN (
1mk)
(i
ii
) Statet womai ntenancepr acti
cesoft oolM. (
1mk)
FARM TOOLSANSWERS
1A)
Tenon/backsaw
Cross–cutsaw/r i
psaw/handsaw (
1mk)
b) Tenonsaw-Forcut ti
ngt enonj oints/f i
nesawingrej
ectcut
ti
ngjoi
nts
al
one
Crosscut-sawcut t
ingacr osst hegr ai
nsofwood (
2mks)
2a)M –mi lki
ngbucket/pai l(rej
ectmi l
kbucket/pail
)
L-Mil
kchur n/can( rej
ectmi lkingchur n) 2x½=1mks
b) M –usedf orholdi
ngmi l
kdur ingmi lki
ng 2x1=2mks
L–Usedf orholdingmi lkdur i
ngt ransport
ation
c)i
)Washi ngt horoughlywi t
hhotwat er 2x1=2mks
i
i
)St eri
li
zingusingr ecommendeddet ergent

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4.(
a) A-gardent
rowel
B-
elastr
ator
C-Plumbbob/plumbline
D-Jackplane (
½x4)
(
b)
Tool use
A -forli
fti
ngseedl i
ngsf rom
thenur ser yduring
transplant ing.
B -forappl ying/fi
xingt he
rubberr ingdur i
ng
castrationdocki ngor
dehor ni
ng
C -checkst hev er
tical
strai
ght nessofast one
wal lduringcast rati
on.
D -forsmoot heningr ough
woodsur faces.
(c)
Sharpeni ngthebladesr egul
arly
Replacingbr okenhandl esandknob
Tighteningloosepar ts(screws)
Adjustingappr opr
iatelythelev
ercap. (½x2)
6. a) - St i
r-uppump.√½
b) - Spr ayi
nglivest
ock√1
c) - E- Tri
gger√½
- F- Nozzl
e√½

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- G- (
Br ass)lance.√½ 1½mk
d) - Needt wopeopl et ooperate.√1
- Noteasyt ocarryaboutdur i
ngoperati
on.√1
1x2=2mk
Equi
pment Identif
y Use
K………………….. -Hy poder mic -I
nject
sy r
inge/sy r
inge Ani mal sto
Andneedl e i
ntroduce
Drugorv acci
ne
L -Adjust able -Holdingdiff
erent
spanner si
zesofnut sand
bolts
(Acceptt i
ghteni
ng
/loosening)

9.(
i)Augerbi t (
1x1=1mk)
(i
i
)S–shank
T-Twi stthreads
U-Spur (
3x1=3mks)
(i
i
i)Maki nghol es(bori
nghol esont hewood (1mk)
12(
i)Condi t
ionsunderwhi cht ool l
abel
edAi sused
Har dgr ound/soils
Ast onyf iel
d
Fieldwi thrhizomes/st olons/roots
Af i
eldwi thst i
ckysoils(2x1=2mks)
(i
i)Funct ionsofthet ool label
edC
Cuttingpr uningundesi rablebranches/st
emsoft
rees/
frui
ts/
cof
fee/

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Cut t
ingpruningexcessivevegetati
v epar
ts(
1x1=1mk)
(i
i
i)Mai ntenancepracticesoftoollabel
edB
Clean/ r
emov esoil/
trashafteruse
Straight
ent heprongsifbend
Replacethehandl eifbroken
Fi
xt hehandl efi
rmlyont herake(2x1=2mks)
13.
a)
Tool Name
P Trysquare
Q Spir
itl
evel
R Tenonsaw/ backsaw
S Coldchisel
½x4=2MKS
UseoftoolsPandRi ntheconstructi
onofawoodenf eedtrough
P-Measuri
ngangles/layoutofangl
es/measur i
nglengt
hs
R-Cutti
ngtimbertomakej oi
nts/usedforj
oinerywork
-Fi
necutti
ng/sawing
½
x1=1/
2mk
UseofQi ntheconstr
ucti
onofacal fpen
Todetermineift
hefloorl
evel/thewall
sarevert
ical
.

½x1=½ mk
Mai
ntenancepr
act
icesontoolS
-
Sharpeni
ngthecut
ti
ngedge
-
Remov i
ngthemushroom head
½
x2=2mks

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i)M-hacksaw
N-handsaw
ii
)Funct ionaldifferencesbetweenM andN
-hacksaw( M)i susedf orcutt
ingmet
alr
odsandpl
ateswhi
l
e(N)hand
sawi susedf orcut ti
ngwood/ ti
mber
(1x1=1mk)
ii
i)mai ntenancepr act
ices
ti
ghtenloosescr ewsandnut s(ref.
bol
t)
repl
acewor noutbl ade
regul
arcleani ng
hangpr operlytoav oi
dpossi bl
edamage
mai ntaincorrectt ensionoftheblade

OTHERREVI SI
ONQUESTI ONS
a).Whati sAgr icult
ure?
b) .Stat ether olespl ayedbyagr i
cult
ur einnat
ional devel
opment
d) .i)Br i
efl
yout li
net hepr oblemst hathav ehinderedagr i
cul
tur
al
development
inKeny a.
i
i)Suggestway sinwhi cht hesepr oblemscanbeal levi
ated
a)i)Whatar ethechar acteri
sticsofshi f
tingcult
ivati
on?
ii
)St atet hepr oblemsassoci atedwithshi f
ti
ngculti
v at
ion.
Whatispast oral i
sm?
St
atethef actorst oconsi deri nchoosi ngat ypeoff ar
m
Whatisarabl ef arming?
i
)Statetheadv antagesofmi xedfar ming
ii
)St atet hel i
mi t
ationsofmi xedf arming
i
)Givethet ypesoff armingpr acti
sedbysmal l scal
efarmers
Namet het ypesofl argescal efarmi ng

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Whydoest heKeny agov ernmentputal otofemphasi sonr anchi

ng?
Statet hecommonf eat ur esofr anchingasaf armingsy stem:
i
)Statet headv ant agesofpl ant ationf arming
St
atethedi sadv ant agesofpl ant at ions.
Statet hemaj orchar act er i
sti
csofpl ant ationf arming.
a)Li stt heecol ogi cal fact or saffect i
ngagr iculture.
Mentiont heaspect sofr ainfal lwhi char eimpor tantincr oppr oduct i
on
i
)Whati sopt imal temper ature?
i
i)St atet heef fect sofhi ght emper atureoncr oppr oduction.
Stat
et henegat i
v eef fect sofwi ndt ocr ops.
a).i.Def inet het erm soi l
i
i).Namet heway si nwhi chsoi lisimpor tantt ogrowi ngplants.
b).i )St atet hef actor swhi chi nfluencet hesoi lformingpr ocess
i
i).Whatbi ol ogi cal agent sinfl
uencet hespeedoft hesoi lformingpr
ocess?
i)Def i
net het erm soi lProf ile
ii
)Howdoessoi lpr ofileinfluencepl antgr owt h?
i)Listt heconst i
tuent sofaf erti
lesoi l.
ii
)Whatr oledomi cr o- organismspl ayi nsoi l
?
i)Whati ssoi lstruct ure?
ii
)St at et hef ar mingpr act i
cest hati mpr ovesoi l
structure.
ii
i
)Whyi sagoodsoi lst r
uctur edesi reabl eforgr owingcr ops.
i)Whati ssoi ltext ur e?
Stat ethepr oper tiesofsoi lt hatar einfluencedbyi tstexture.
Givet het y pesofsoi l basedont extur e.
a)St atet headv ant agesofusi ngf armt ool s.
Listt hef act or st hatdet ermi neaf ar mer ’
schoi ceoft oolsandequi pment
.
i)Whyshoul dt ool sandequi pmentt omai nt ainedwel l?
i
i)Howshoul dt ool sandequi pmentbemai ntained?
Listt hesaf et ypr ecaut ionsnecessar yfort ool sandequi pment
Namet hecat egor iesoff armt oolsandequi pment .

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a)Stat et hei mpor tanceofl andpr epar ation.

b)i)Whati spr imar ycul tivation?
ii
)Whi chf act orsi nf l
uencechoi ceoft oolsforprimaryculti
vat
ion.
i
)Whati ssecondar ycul tivation?
ii
)Gi v er easonsf orsecondar ycul tivati
on?
i
)Def inemi nimum t i
llage
ii
i)St at ereasonsf orpr act i
singmi nimum til
lage.
Namet hef actor st hatdet ermi net henumberoft i
llageoperati
onsduring
seedbedpr epar at i
on.
a)Listt hesour cesofwat eront hef ar m.
Howi swat erconv ey edf rom onepoi nttoanot her?
i
)Namet het y pesofwat erpi pes.
ii
i)Whatf eatur esar econsi der edwhenbuy i
ngpl asti
cpipes?
Namet het ypesofwat erpumpst obeusedont hef arm.
i
)Whyshoul dwat erbet r
eat edbef oreuse?
i
i)St at ethemet hodsoft r
eat ingwat eronthef arm.
i
ii
)Howi swat erusedont hef arm?
a)i)Whati si rr
igat ion?
i
i)Li stt hef act or stoconsi deri ndeci dingtoirri
gatecrops.
b)Li stt hemaj ort y pesofi rri
gat ion
a)i)Whatar et heusesoff armr ecor ds
Li
sttypesofr ecor dskeptonmi xedf arms.
Li
sttypesofr ecor dskeptbycr opf ar mer s.
,goat ,pigs, bees, fi
sh, donkey , camel
10b)i )Expl aint her oleofl i
vest ocki nhumanl if
e
ii
)Li stf act orst hataf fectlivest ocki ndustryinKeny a.
c)i)Li stdai rybr eedsofcat tle
ii
)St atet heirchar act eristi
cs.
i
)Namebeefcat tl
ebr eeds.

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ii
)Whatar ethechar acteristi
csofbeefcat tl
e.
Namet heimpor t
antr abbi tbreedsi nKeny a.
Namet hemaj orbreedsofsheepi nKeny aandi ndicatethepurposetheyare
keptfor
Namei mpor t
antgoatbr eedsandt hei
ruses
Namei mpor t
antpi gbr eedskepti nKeny a.
i
)Gi vethemeani ngsofexot icandt oindigenousbr eeds.
Statethechar acteristicsofexot i
ccat t
lethatmaket hem bett
ersui
tedto
mar gi
nal areast hanexot iccat t
lebreeds.
Whatar etheadv antagesofkeepi ngaJer seycowi nsteadofFri
esi
anfor
productionofmi lk?
i
)Statethegener alchar acteristi
csofexot iccattl
ebr eeds.
ii
)Gi v
et hechar acteristicsofi ndigenouscat t
le
11. Belowi sadi agram ofanur ser yforrai
singtheseedl ings.

(a) Statetwoadv antagesofhavingthepartl

abel
edJ
(2mks)*Nrk*
(
b) St ateany3managementpr acti
cest
hatshoul
dbecarri
edoutont
he
nurseryfr
om thet i
meseedl i
ngsemer getot
hestageoft
ranspl
ant
ing
3mks)*Nrk
12.a)i )Whati ssoilfer
ti
li
ty?
Stat
et hecharacter
ist
icsofaf er
ti
lesoil
.

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Howcanaf ertilesoillossi t
sf ertili
ty
iv).St atet heway sofmai ntainingori mpr ovingsoi lf
ertil
it
y
i)Whatar epl antnut ri
ent s?
ii
)Namet hemaj orplantnut r
ients( macr o-
nut r
ients)
St at et her ol esanddef i
ciencyoft hef oll
owingnut r
ientsinplants.
i)Ni trogenuses
Def i
ciency .
Excessi vesuppl y
Phosphor ousused.
Def iciency
Pot assi um uses.
Def iciency .
i)Whati ssoi lsampl i
ng?
Li
stt hemet hodsofsoi lsampl i
ng.
St
at et her easonsf orsoiltesting:
Explaint hepr ocedur eofsoi l sampl i
ng:
St
at epr ecaut ionsnecessar ydur ingsoi l
ssampl ing
Namet hemet hodsofdet ectingnut ri
entdef i
ciencyi ncrops:
Stat et hei mpor tanceofsoi lPHt oacr op:
13a)i )Di ffer enti
atebet weenmanur eandf ertil
izer:
Li
stt hecommonor gani cmanur es
b).i )Whati sor ganicmat ter?
St
at et hei mpor tanceofor gani cmat t
er
Howcanor gani cmat terbeaddedt osoil?
c)i )Descr ibehowt omakef ar m Yardmanur e:
ii
)St atet hef actorsdet ermi ningqual it
yoff army ardmanur e
ii
i)Gi v et headv antagesofusi ngFar m Yar dManur eov erfer
til
izer
:
Gi
v et hedi sadv antagesofusi ngf army ardmanur e
d)i )St at et hef actorstoconsi derwhenci ti
ngacompostpi t.
Descr ibehowt omakecompostmanur e
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i)Howi sgr eenmanur i

ngdoneont hef arm?
Listt hechar act erist
icsofgr eenmanur ecr ops:
Whatar et headv ant agesofgr eenmanur ing?
14a)Cl assi fyfer ti
li
zersbynut rientcont ent .
b)i )Namet hecommonni trogenousf er t
il
izers.
Stat epr oper tiesofni tr
ogenousf erti
li
zers/( char acteri
sti
cs)
Whenar etheyappl iedandwhyatt hatt i
me?
c)i )Namet hecommonphosphat icfertil
izers:
Whenar etheyappl iedandwhyatt het i
me?
i
)Namet hecommonpot assicf ert
il
izers
Char act eristics:
i
)Whati sf er t
il
izerappl i
cat i
on?
Listt hemet hodsoff erti
li
zerappl i
cation:
Whati stopdr essi ng?
i
)Cal culatet heamountofK2O( pot assium chl or i
de)cont ai
nedi n400kgofa
compoundf ertil
izer25: 10: 5–5kgofK2Oi scont ainedin100kgof25: 10:5
Af ar meri st oappl yacompoundf ert
ili
zer20: 30: 10onav egetableplot
measur i
ng5met resl ongby4met reswi de,atther ateof200kgper
hectar e.
Cal culat etheamountoft hef ertili
zerthef armerwoul drequirefortheplot.
(showy ourwor king)
Whatdot hef i
gur es20, 30and10i nt hefer t
ili
zerst andfor
Howmuchofaf erti
li
zerl abel ed( 20:20:10)shoul dbeappl iedtoapl otwhich
requir es30kgP2O5?
15.a)i )Stat ethei mpor tanceoft heni t
rogency cl
e
Descr i
bet heni trogency cle:
Whathappenst oni trogeni nt hesoi l
?
b)i )St atet hei mpor t
anceofcar boncy cl
e
Descr ibethecar boncy cle
Howi scar bonl ost ?

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Howcancar bonber est or edt ot heat mospher e?

16.a)i )Def inecr oppr opagat i
on.
Whatar et hemet hodsofcr oppr opagat ion?
b)i)Li stt hedi fferentmet hodsofv egetat i
vepropagation:
Stat
eadv ant agesofv eget ativepr opagat ion.
Stat
ei t
sdi sadv ant ages.
i
)Whatar etheadv ant agesofseedpr opagat ion
Stat
et hedi sadv ant agesofseedpr opagat i
on
i
)Givetheadv ant agesofear lypl anting
Statethef act orst oconsi derwhensel ectingseedsorot herplant
ing
mat er ialsf orpl anting
Whatar et her easonsf orseedsel ect i
on?
Whatpr act icesar ecar riedoutf orseedst oensur ethattheygerminate?
i
)Listthemet hodsofpl anting
Stat
et headv ant agesofr owpl anting.
Stat
et hef act or swhi chi nf luencepl antingdept h.
Whatf actor sdet ermi necr opspaci ng?
Stat
et headv ant agesofcor rectspaci ng
Whyi scor rectpl antpopul ationnecessar y?
Namet hetreatment snecessar yonpl ant i
ngmat eri
alsbeforeplant
ing?
17a)Whati sanur ser y
?
Stat
et her easonsf orusi nganur ser y.
Statethenur ser iesmanagementpr acti
ces.
Expl
aint hef ollowi ngnur ser ypr actices.
i)Pr i
cki ngout .
Hardeningof f.
Rogueing.

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Onaddi
ti
oncont
act0714497530f
or
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ldesi
gnedhi
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not
es
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edCPA&CI
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es
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ngschemes
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s

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ivat
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