UNIT 2

Wearability Issues
Physical Shape and Placement of Sensors

Ergonomics and Comfort

Material Selection:

• Definition: Choosing materials that minimize skin irritation and enhance comfort.
• Example: Hypoallergenic silicone used in wristbands like those on Fitbit devices
prevents allergic reactions and is comfortable for prolonged wear.

Design Customization:

• Definition: Providing adjustable and customizable options to ensure the wearable fits a
variety of body types and user preferences.
• Example: Apple Watch offers multiple strap sizes and styles, allowing users to select the
best fit for their wrist size and comfort level.

Breathability:

• Definition: Incorporating materials that allow airflow to reduce sweating and discomfort.
• Example: Nike’s Dri-FIT technology used in smart clothing integrates breathable fabrics
that wick away sweat, enhancing comfort during physical activities.

Placement Considerations

Sensor Accuracy:

• Definition: The accuracy of the data collected depends on the correct placement of the
sensor.
• Example: EMG sensors need to be precisely placed over the muscle of interest to
accurately measure muscle activity, as seen in Myo armbands.

Non-Intrusiveness:

• Definition: Placing sensors in locations that do not interfere with daily activities.
• Example: Placing a heart rate monitor on the chest or wrist, like the Polar H10 heart rate
sensor, allows users to move freely without feeling hindered.

User Training:

• Definition: Providing instructions to users on how to correctly place and use the sensors
for optimal performance.
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• Example: The Whoop Strap provides detailed guidelines and tutorials on proper
positioning to ensure accurate fitness and health data collection.

Aesthetic and Discretion

Invisible Technology:

• Definition: Embedding sensors into everyday objects or making them less noticeable.
• Example: Google Glass embeds sensors into eyeglasses, making the technology
unobtrusive and easy to wear daily.

Fashion Integration:

• Definition: Collaborating with fashion designers to create appealing wearables.

• Example: Fitbit’s collaboration with luxury brand Tory Burch offers stylish wearables
that function as both fitness trackers and fashion accessories.

Modularity:

• Definition: Designing sensors that can be attached to various accessories to match

different styles.
• Example: Misfit Shine’s modular design allows it to be worn as a clip, necklace, or
wristband, catering to different user preferences.

Technical Challenges
Sensor Design

Miniaturization

Integration Techniques:

• Definition: Using advanced manufacturing methods to reduce the size of sensors while
maintaining functionality.
• Example: MEMS (Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems) technology is used in devices
like smartphones and fitness trackers to integrate multiple sensor functions into a small
chip.

Power Efficiency:

• Definition: Creating electronics that consume less power to extend battery life.
• Example: The Nordic Semiconductor’s nRF52 series is designed for low power
consumption, making it ideal for wearable applications.

System-on-Chip (SoC):
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• Definition: Combining multiple sensor functions into a single integrated chip.
• Example: The Apple S6 chip in the Apple Watch integrates various sensors and
processors, enhancing performance while saving space.

Durability and Flexibility

Robust Materials:

• Definition: Using materials that can withstand environmental stress without degrading.
• Example: Graphene-based materials are used in flexible, durable wearable sensors that
maintain performance under strain.

Self-Healing Materials:

• Definition: Materials that can repair minor damages automatically, extending device
lifespan.
• Example: Polymers that heal when exposed to heat or light are being researched for use
in wearable electronics.

Waterproofing:

• Definition: Making sensors resistant to water to ensure they function under wet
conditions.
• Example: The Garmin Vivosmart series is designed to be waterproof, allowing users to
wear it while swimming or showering.

Accuracy and Precision

Calibration Protocols:

• Definition: Regularly adjusting sensors to maintain accuracy over time.

• Example: Smart scales, like those from Withings, require periodic calibration to ensure
accurate weight and body composition measurements.

Advanced Algorithms:

• Definition: Using sophisticated computational methods to correct for sensor drift and
environmental variations.
• Example: Fitbit’s heart rate tracking algorithms adjust for motion and other variables to
provide accurate readings during exercise.

Redundant Sensors:

• Definition: Using multiple sensors for the same measurement to cross-check data and
enhance reliability.
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• Example: Smartphones often use multiple accelerometers to improve accuracy in motion
detection and orientation.

Signal Acquisition and Processing

Signal Integrity

Noise Reduction:

• Definition: Techniques to minimize unwanted signals or interference.

• Example: ECG monitors use shielding and grounding to reduce electromagnetic
interference, ensuring clearer readings.

Motion Artifact Removal:

• Definition: Algorithms to identify and remove artifacts caused by user movement.

• Example: Wearable ECG devices like the Zephyr BioPatch use motion artifact removal
algorithms to ensure accurate heart rate data during activity.

Signal Enhancement:

• Definition: Using amplifiers and filters to improve the quality of acquired signals.
• Example: Amplifiers in hearing aids enhance weak sounds while filtering out
background noise.

Sampling Frequency

Dynamic Sampling:

• Definition: Adjusting the sampling rate based on activity to save power.

• Example: The Fitbit Charge adjusts its heart rate sampling rate based on whether the user
is resting or active, optimizing battery life.

Event-Triggered Sampling:

• Definition: Sampling only during significant events to conserve energy.

• Example: Fall detection systems in smartwatches sample accelerometer data at higher
rates when a potential fall is detected.

High-Resolution Modes:

• Definition: Providing options for high-resolution data capture during critical activities.
• Example: Sports watches like the Garmin Forerunner series offer high-resolution GPS
tracking during workouts while using lower resolution during casual use.

Data Compression and Storage

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Edge Computing:

• Definition: Performing data processing on the device to reduce the need for data
transmission.
• Example: Smartwatches with built-in processors can analyze fitness data locally and
sync summaries to the cloud, reducing bandwidth usage.

Efficient Algorithms:

• Definition: Compression techniques that minimize data size while preserving important
information.
• Example: JPEG compression for images retains essential details while significantly
reducing file size, applicable to image-based wearable data.

Cloud Integration:

• Definition: Seamless connectivity with cloud services for storage and analysis.
• Example: The Apple Health app syncs data from various health devices to the cloud for
comprehensive long-term analysis and storage.

Rejection of Irrelevant Information

Noise Filtering

Adaptive Filters:

• Definition: Filters that adjust parameters in real-time based on signal characteristics.

• Example: Adaptive noise cancellation in headphones dynamically adjusts to reduce
background noise, similar techniques apply in wearable health monitors.

Machine Learning:

• Definition: Using machine learning models to differentiate between relevant signals and
noise.
• Example: Google’s Fit app uses machine learning to accurately classify different types
of physical activity from accelerometer data.

Multi-Stage Filtering:

• Definition: Employing multiple filters in sequence to progressively clean signals.

• Example: Wearable EEG devices use a combination of low-pass, high-pass, and band-
pass filters to isolate brain wave signals from noise.

Context-Aware Sensing

Environmental Sensors:
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• Definition: Additional sensors that detect environmental conditions affecting data
quality.
• Example: Smart clothing with integrated temperature and humidity sensors can adjust
algorithms to account for environmental variations.

Activity Recognition:

• Definition: Algorithms that classify user activities and adjust data processing
accordingly.
• Example: The Apple Watch automatically recognizes when a user starts a workout and
adjusts its data collection for more accurate tracking.

User Feedback:

• Definition: Systems that learn from user interactions to improve context recognition.
• Example: Fitness apps that allow users to label activities, helping the system learn and
improve its activity classification accuracy over time.

Data Fusion

Sensor Fusion Algorithms:

• Definition: Techniques combining data from multiple sensors to enhance accuracy.

• Example: Smartphones use sensor fusion to combine accelerometer, gyroscope, and GPS
data for accurate navigation and motion tracking.

Redundancy:

• Definition: Using redundant sensor data to cross-verify measurements.

• Example: Multi-sensor heart rate monitors use both optical and electrical sensors to
ensure accurate heart rate readings.

Temporal Integration:

• Definition: Combining data over time to identify patterns and trends.

• Example: Continuous glucose monitors (CGMs) analyze blood glucose levels over time
to detect patterns and provide insights for diabetes management.

Power Requirements and Energy Harvesting

Solar Cells

Principle

• Definition: Solar cells convert sunlight into electrical energy using photovoltaic effects.
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• Example: The Garmin Instinct Solar smartwatch integrates solar panels into its design,
extending battery life by harnessing sunlight.

Challenges

Efficiency:

• Definition: Improving the efficiency of solar cells to generate more power.

• Example: Research on perovskite solar cells aims to achieve higher efficiency rates
compared to traditional silicon cells.

Integration:

• Definition: Seamlessly incorporating solar cells into wearable designs.

• Example: The PowerWatch 2 by Matrix Industries integrates solar panels into its watch
face without compromising its aesthetics or comfort.

Durability:

• Definition: Ensuring solar cells withstand daily wear and tear.

• Example: Flexible solar panels made from durable materials can be bent and flexed,
making them ideal for integration into wearable fabrics.

Vibration-Based Energy Harvesting

Principle

• Definition: Converts mechanical vibrations into electrical energy through piezoelectric

materials or electromagnetic induction.
• Example: Piezoelectric elements in the soles of smart shoes can harvest energy from
walking or running.

Applications

Fitness Trackers:

• Definition: Devices that harvest energy from body movements.

• Example: The SolePower insole generates electricity from walking to power embedded
sensors and lights.

Industrial Wearables:

• Definition: Wearables in industrial environments harnessing machinery vibrations.

• Example: Wearable sensors on factory workers can use vibrations from machinery to
power data collection devices.
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Challenges

Energy Output:

• Definition: Increasing the energy generated to power wearables consistently.

• Example: Enhancing piezoelectric materials' efficiency to produce more electricity from
smaller vibrations.

Harvesting Efficiency:

• Definition: Designing systems that effectively capture a range of vibration frequencies.

• Example: Multi-frequency harvesters can capture vibrations from various sources,
improving overall energy collection efficiency.

Thermal-Based Energy Harvesting

Principle

• Definition: Uses thermoelectric generators (TEGs) to convert temperature differences

into electrical power.
• Example: The Seiko Thermic watch uses body heat to power its functions, leveraging the
temperature difference between the wrist and ambient air.

Advantages

Continuous Power:

• Definition: Provides a reliable power source as long as there is a temperature gradient.

• Example: Wearable health monitors can use body heat to power sensors continuously,
ideal for long-term health tracking.

Challenges

Material Efficiency:

• Definition: Improving thermoelectric materials to maximize power output.

• Example: Advanced materials like bismuth telluride offer better thermoelectric
efficiency for wearable applications.

Integration:

• Definition: Designing thin and flexible TEGs for seamless integration into wearables.
• Example: Flexible TEGs embedded in smart textiles can generate power without adding
bulk or discomfort.

Human Body as a Heat Source

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Principle

• Definition: Thermoelectric materials convert body heat into electricity.

• Example: The PowerWatch by Matrix Industries uses thermoelectric generators to
charge itself using the wearer’s body heat.

Applications

Medical Wearables:

• Definition: Continuous health monitors powered by body heat.

• Example: A wearable ECG monitor that uses body heat to power its sensors and transmit
data continuously.

Challenges

Power Density:

• Definition: Enhancing the power output to run more demanding electronics.

• Example: Research on higher efficiency thermoelectric materials aims to increase the
power density sufficient for advanced wearables.

Comfort:

• Definition: Ensuring devices remain comfortable and do not cause thermal discomfort.
• Example: Thermoelectric devices designed with breathable and ergonomic materials to
maintain comfort while generating power.

Hybrid Thermoelectric Photovoltaic Energy Harvesting

Principle

• Definition: Combines photovoltaic cells and thermoelectric generators to capture both

solar and thermal energy.
• Example: Hybrid energy harvesting wearables can use solar power during the day and
body heat at night, providing a continuous power source.

Benefits

Extended Battery Life:

• Definition: Dual-harvesting capabilities extend operational life, reducing recharge

frequency.
• Example: Hybrid smartwatches that use both solar and thermal energy can last
significantly longer between charges.
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Challenges

System Complexity:

• Definition: Managing the integration and operation of two energy systems.

• Example: Designing efficient hybrid systems that balance solar and thermal energy
capture without increasing size and cost excessively.

Optimization:

• Definition: Balancing energy harvesting from both sources to optimize overall power
generation.
• Example: Smart algorithms can dynamically switch between solar and thermal
harvesting based on availability and efficiency.

Thermopiles

Principle

• Definition: Consist of multiple thermocouples generating voltage from temperature

differences.
• Example: Thermopiles are used in wearable temperature sensors to monitor skin or core
body temperature accurately.

Applications

Temperature Monitoring:

• Definition: Devices requiring precise temperature measurements.

• Example: Wearable health monitors use thermopiles to track body temperature, crucial
for detecting fever or other health conditions.

Challenges

Efficiency:

• Definition: Improving conversion efficiency to generate more power from temperature

differences.
• Example: Research on advanced thermopile materials aims to enhance efficiency for
better performance in wearables.

Integration:

• Definition: Developing compact, flexible thermopiles for seamless integration into

wearables.
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• Example: Flexible thermopiles embedded in smart clothing can provide continuous
temperature monitoring without adding bulk or discomfort.