Chapter Two Literature Review

Chapter Two

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 Chapter Two Literature Review

2-1 Introduction
The monopile is the dominant foundation system for current and planned
offshore wind farm developments in shallow coastal waters, particularly in
Europe. Monopile foundations in this application are typically designed with the
aid of simplified analysis approaches, such as the ‘p-y’ method and its variants,
in which the foundation is modelled as an embedded beam, with the lateral
load-displacement interaction between the soil and pile represented by non-
linear functions known as p-y curves. A recent project – known as PISA (PIle
Soil Analysis) – employed field testing and computational modeling to develop
a new design approach for monopile foundations for offshore wind turbine
applications. In this new approach, the underlying simplicity of the p-y method
– in which the pile is modeled as an embedded beam – is retained, but
additional components of soil reaction are incorporated within the design model
to improve its performance.

An integrated perspective of energy use and environmental preservation can be

achieved by the utilization of renewable energy resources. Renewable energy
resources account for 12.2% of India’s installed capacity, with 70% contribution
from wind sector [1]. Presently, the focus is shifting towards offshore wind
energy due to favorable factors like higher wind speed, low visual intrusion and
noise, easy transportation of higher capacity wind turbine, lesser transmission
costs for coastal cities, conservation of utilizable land and over exploitation of
potential onshore sites [Ishwarya Srikanth,etal 2017].

Offshore wind turbines (OWTs) are generally supported by large-diameter

monopiles, with the combination of axial forces, lateral forces, bending
moments, and torsional moments generated by the OWT structure and various
environmental factors resisted by earth pressures mobilized in the soil
foundation. The lateral loading on the monopile foundation is essentially cyclic
in nature and typically of low amplitude.

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 Chapter Two Literature Review

Based on experiences from full-scale measurements ,results of advanced

finite-element modeling and the development of new more highly optimized
design methods, it is possible that monopiles supporting 6–8 MW wind
turbines could be installed within the majority of these sites. As of today,
monopiles supporting 6 MW wind turbines have been designed for water
depth up to 35 m, including those recently constructed for the Gode Wind
Offshore Wind Farm and shown in Figure 3. This monopile is 7.5 m in
diameter. Monopiles, with diameters up to 10 m, are claimed to be feasible in
water depths upto 60 m. However, larger turbines and deeper water will
challenge the technical feasibility of the monopile, particularly as wave action
will increasingly interfere with the dynamics of the turbine structure.

Figure 1 A 7.5 m diameter monopile for Gode Wind Offshore Wind Farm.

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 Chapter Two Literature Review

2-2 Previous Study

The components of the PISA design model are illustrated in Figure 2. A

monopile foundation is represented in the model as an embedded beam with
moment MG and horizontal force HG applied to the pile at the ground surface.
Four separate components of soil reaction are assumed to act on the embedded
monopile. Consistent with the standard p-y method, distributed lateral load, p
(units of force / length) acts on the pile. Additionally, a distributed moment, m
(units of force×length / length) is applied; this distributed moment is caused by
the vertical tractions that are induced at the soil-pile interface when local pile
rotations occur, as indicated in Figure 2a and b and Figure 3.

Figure 2. PISA 1D monopile model (a) assumed soil reactions acting on the monopile (b) 1D design model.
In the left figure, the soil reactions are shown in the directions that they are likely to act, given the applied
loads that are indicated. In the right figure, the indicated directions of the soil reactions are consistent with the
coordinate directions shown.

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 Chapter Two Literature Review

Figure 3. Diagrammatic view of the vertical tractions acting at the soilpile interface for an elemental length of
pile, dz, These tractions are assumed equivalent to a distributed moment reaction, m.

The PISA modeling process is suitable for assessments of the ULS performance
as well as for predicting the smalldisplacement dynamic performance of an
offshore wind turbine structure. The current paper is limited to the modeling of
monopile behavior in a dense sand (although a similar calibration study, not
reported here, has been completed for an over-consolidated clay till). Further
development work is needed to extend the method to other soil types, included
layered soils, and to include the effects of cyclic loading.

Figure 4 shows the lateral displacements induced in the embedded portions of

the piles for an applied horizontal load of H = 0.75 H max, where Hmax is the value
of horizontal load at vG = 0.1D determined from the 3D finite element analysis.
The two sets of data are seen to agree well. The close agreement between the
computed responses obtained using the 3D and 1D models for these two design
cases is consistent with the assumption implicit in the PISA methodology, that
the 1D model provides an efficient means of interpolating the overall pile
response computed using the 3D calibration calculations to other pile
geometries within the calibration space.[ Burd, H. J,eta,2017].

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 Chapter Two Literature Review

Figure 4. Below-ground lateral displacements for design examples D1 and D2 computed

using the 3D finite element model and the calibrated 1D design model. The D1 and D2
results correspond to H = 22.1 MN and 36.15 MN respectively

Parametric studies are carried-out on various configurations of a hollow

monopile by varying water depths and properties of sand. A nonlinear static
analysis of substructure is performed considering aerodynamic forces and
hydrodynamic forces for various structural and soil parameters. The sub-
structure design of wind turbine is based on API (American petroleum institute)
standards. A simplified design methodology for monopile support structure
under extreme loading condition is presented based on multivariable linear
regression analysis. The input variables for the regression analysis are
hydrodynamic data, angle of internal friction of sand, and the output variables
are length and outer diameter of monopile. This simplified methodology is
applicable in pre-studies of wind power parks.

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 Chapter Two Literature Review

Feasibility studies show that the region has shallow water depths of 10 m to 20
m with predominant soil being silty sand. Monopile would be one of the ideal
sub-structure solutions for these conditions. A simplified mechanical model of a
monopile founded OWT is shown in Fig.4. [Ishwarya Srikanth,etal 2017].

Fig. 4 Simplified mechanical model of an OWT [Ishwarya Srikanth,etal 2017].

This paper proposes equations and nomograms for quick preliminary design of
offshore monopile foundation for wind turbine using simplified design
procedure. This study is based on extreme environmental conditions offshore of
Gujarat, India. However, these equations are applicable for any other location
having similar environmental conditions and turbine specifications. The
proposed design equations give a good estimate for the initial study on the
offshore monopile design for a given location. Hence, the time and effort
required for prefeasibility study are minimized by this simplified design
methodology. The response of monopiles under cyclic/dynamic load is not well
understood and there is a lack of guidance in codes of practice. If cyclic design
is incorrect, monopile can tilt in the long term.

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 Chapter Two Literature Review

A study into the feasibility of monopile foundations at sites in the North Sea
with water depths as great as 35 m has been carried out in which various options
for the geometric configuration and the selection of material were considered. In
parameter studies, simplified design methods were applied to assess the effects
of the individual load components at the draft design stage. The fatigue limit
state becomes more and more relevant as the water depth increases; therefore,
dynamic effects must be examined with special care. Turbine concepts with low
RNA mass and low rated speed help to achieve the desired design in the soft-
stiff regime. As a result, it can be said that monopile foundations with their
great manufacturing advantages can be constructed for water depths beyond the
current limits of practical experience if the logistical challenges in handling
large masses are solved.[ Scharff, R., & Siems, M. (2013)]

The details on the geometric design have nominal size, and structural and
environmental loading for existing and planned OWT structures supported by
monopile foundations. Pertinent ocean-environment loading conditions,
including methods of calculation using site-specific data, are described along
with wave particle kinematics, focusing on correlations between the loading
frequency and natural vibration frequency of the OWT structure. Existing
methods for modeling soil under cyclic loading are reviewed, focusing in
particular on strain accumulation models that consider pile–soil interaction
under cyclic lateral loading. Inherent limitations/shortcomings of these models
for the analysis and design of existing and planned OWT monopile foundations
are discussed. A design example of an OWT support structure having a
monopile foundation system is presented. Target areas for further research by
the wind-energy sector, which would facilitate the development of improved
analyses/design methods for offshore monopiles, are identified. [Arshad, M., &
O'Kelly, B. C. (2016)].

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There is a potential for further optimization of monopile support structures,

compared with current state-of-practice across the industry. The overall
reduction of steel tonnage, which is closely linked to costs, will depend
very much on site conditions, but savings in the region of 10–25% may not
be unreasonable, compared to current assessments. The experience from West
of Duddon Sands Offshore Wind Farm highlights the potential for this
optimization. Improved design methods will allow the monopile to be used in
deeper water, and for larger turbines, than hitherto. The continued use of
monopile support structures for future projects will allow the entire monopile
supply chain to further mature, providing additional benefits. This could
make monopile support structures technically feasible for the majority of the
sites to be designed before 2020. In addition, a better understanding of the
engineering response of monopile structures may result in extensions of lifetime
for currently installed support structures, assuming that design assumptions are
not violated. The extension of life assessment will become increasingly
important going forward for the earlier generations of wind farms. The
optimization methods described in this paper are an important part of
meeting the cost-reduction target targeted by the industry, if the industry is to
develop as the ambition requires it to [Kallehave, D,etal(2017].

Monopiles for offshore wind energy converters are highly laterally loaded
structures with diameters up to 6 m and more. Their design is based on the well-
known p-y-method, which has been calibrated on field test results for much
smaller pile diameters. The present paper provides an FE-analysis of the
monopile behavior compared to the standard design method. The results
indicate the influence of the pile diameter on the pile-soil stiffness and point out
that the p-y-method overestimates the soil stiffness at great depth. A
modification of the p-y-method is proposed which better accounts for the pile-
soil interaction of large diameter monopiles.[Lesny, K,etal,2007].

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The support structure for offshore wind turbines (OWTs) plays significant roles
in maintaining the structural stability and reducing the initial cost. An
innovative hybrid monopile foundation for OWTs is proposed. The concept has
a wider adaptability by using established knowledge to solve for new problems.
A series of centrifuge tests is performed to investigate the behavior of this
hybrid foundation system in extreme and service conditions. OWTs with the
original monopile foundation as well as the wheel-only foundations are tested
for comparisons, and two clay profiles are considered. The test results show that
the hybrid monopile foundation provides larger ultimate bearing capacities
compared to the traditional foundations. Two analytical methods are proposed
to estimate the ultimate bearing capacity of this innovative design, and the
results are calibrated by the centrifuge tests. In service conditions, the hybrid
monopile foundation shows stronger cyclic resistances. Influence factors of the
cyclic responses are summarized. An analytical solution is put forward to
estimate the accumulated lateral displacement of the hybrid monopile
foundation. A degradation factor is suggested based on the results of the
centrifuge tests. The study aims to enrich the understanding of the innovative
foundation concept and to provide design references for practical applications.
[ Wang, X,etal(2019].

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