CME364

Energy storage devices

Academic year 2023-2024 – Even semester

Department of Mechanical Engineering
AAMEC, Kovilvenni

Department Vision

To be a center of excellence in the field of Mechanical Engineering where teaching, learning and research
synergize to deliver technical education and scientific research for the nation and beyond

Department Mission

M1: Develop competency among faculty members and the state-of-art infrastructure for the effective
teaching and learning process.

M2: Provide training on Mechanical Engineering and managerial skills to transform the students as
competent professionals.

M3: Make tie-ups with industries, research centers and renowned institutions to synergize the benefit.

Name of the student:_______________________________________

Register No.______________________________________________
 CME364 ENERGY STORAGE DEVICES (Google Classroom Code- 2n3iq52)

Objective: To study the various types of energy storage devices and technologies and them comparison.

Unit – I Introduction to Energy Storage

Need for Energy Storage – Types of Energy Storage – Various forms of Energy Storage – Mechanical– Thermal -
Chemical– Electrochemical – Electrical - Other alternative energy storage technologies – Efficiency and Comparison.

Outcome: At the end of the unit the students would be able to,
Discuss the need and identify the suitable energy storage devices for applications.

Need for Energy Storage

What is need for energy storage?

Improved and reliable electric supply: Storage can also support the efficient delivery of electricity for base load plants like coal
that have slow ramp-up times when responding to grid.

Electrical grid infrastructure: Energy storage options can hugely alleviate the operational costs of the entire grid infrastructure.

What is need for energy storage?

Improved and reliable electric supply: Storage can also support the efficient delivery of electricity for base load plants like coal
that have slow ramp-up times when responding to grid. Electrical grid infrastructure: Energy storage options can hugely alleviate
the operational costs of the entire grid infrastructure.

Why Do We Need Energy Storage?

Energy storage is an attractive tool to support grid electrical supply, transmission and distribution systems. Our Utilities, grid
system operators and regulators benefit from it as switching to storage mechanism strengthens grid resiliency and reliability. This
in turn ensures higher efficiencies across the grid as well as eliminates the need for reliance on other higher greenhouse gas
(GHG) footprint options that would otherwise be preferred with zero storage options.

Advantages of Stored Energy

1) Stored energy is essential for powering many devices and machines that make our daily lives easier. Here are some of the
advantages of using stored energy:

2) Portability: Stored energy can be easily transported and used wherever it is needed. This is especially useful for energy
sources such as batteries and portable power banks.

3) Efficiency: Stored energy can be converted into usable energy with minimal waste. This is because the energy is already
in a concentrated form and can be easily harnessed, unlike other types of energy such as solar or wind power.

4) Reliability: Stored energy can be used on demand, making it a reliable source of energy for devices and machines that
require constant power.

Why does energy need to be stored?

Storage can reduce demand for electricity from inefficient, polluting plants that are often located in low-income and marginalized
communities. Storage can also help smooth out demand, avoiding price spikes for electricity customers

What is the purpose of stored energy?

Stored energy refers to the potential energy of a system that can be released and used to do work. There are several types of stored
energy, including chemical, mechanical, electrical, and thermal energy. The advantages of using stored energy include portability,
efficiency, and reliability.

Even Semester 2023-2024

Department of Mechanical Engineering
AAMEC, Kovilvenni-614403
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 CME364 ENERGY STORAGE DEVICES (Google Classroom Code- 2n3iq52)

Types of Energy Storage

What are the types of energy storage?

There are several types of stored energy, including:

Chemical Energy: This type of energy is stored in the bonds between atoms and molecules. Examples include the energy stored
in fossil fuels and food.

Mechanical Energy: This type of energy is stored in objects due to their position or motion. Examples include compressed
springs, stretched rubber bands, and wound-up toys.

Electrical Energy: This type of energy is stored in capacitors and batteries. Examples include the energy stored in a charged
battery or a lightning bolt.

Thermal Energy: This type of energy is stored in objects due to their temperature. Examples include the energy stored in hot
water or steam.

What are the methods of energy storage?

Ten Energy Storage Methods

1) Compressed Air Storage

2) Pumped-Storage Hydroelectricity

3) Advanced Rail Energy Storage

4) Flywheel Energy Storage

5) Lithium-Ion Battery Storage

6) Liquid Air Energy Storage

7) Pumped Heat Electrical Storage

8) Redox Flow Batteries

Energy storage benefits:

Renewables integration with Grid: Helps to integrate more solar, wind, and distributed energy resources.

Higher Grid Efficiency: This can improve the efficiency of the grid by increasing the capacity factor of existing resources and
offset the need to depend on pollution-emitting peak power plants.

Improved and reliable electric supply: Storage can also support the efficient delivery of electricity for base load plants like coal
that have slow ramp-up times when responding to grid.

Electrical grid infrastructure: Energy storage options can hugely alleviate the operational costs of the entire grid infrastructure.

Overall Savings in Money: Overall incorporation of storage is beneficial to all end-users as it saves costs to society by enabling
storage of low-cost energy and retrieving it later when electricity prices are low.

Energy Storage Scenarios

In Electricity Grid- For example, the energy retrieved from batteries can be used in times of peak demand. This prevents the grid
from becoming overloaded and proceeding towards any possible outages.

Remote/ off the Grid locations- For example for people living in remote off-grid locations, battery energy storage is quite helpful
as storage can be easily connected to solar panels to provide a reliable and grid-free electricity supply.

Even Semester 2023-2024

Department of Mechanical Engineering
AAMEC, Kovilvenni-614403
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 CME364 ENERGY STORAGE DEVICES (Google Classroom Code- 2n3iq52)

Rooftop Solar Panels- For example, homeowners installing their own energy storage can store more power generated by their
rooftop panels, and save more money on their electricity bills.

Electric Vehicles (EVs) –EVs operate with energy stored in batteries. Also, the regenerative braking method absorbs energy,
converts it back to electrical energy, and returns the energy to the batteries.

Technologies in Energy Storage

There are different methods for storing energy that has been developed so that the grid can meet everyday energy needs. These
are: electrical, mechanical, electrochemical, thermal, and chemical. Tabulated data in table.1 below focuses on technologies that
can currently provide large storage capacities (of at least 20 MW).

Table 1 List of Common Storage Technologies

Solar PV, Wind, and Battery Storage-Global LCOE Benchmarks- (Levelised Cost of Energy)

Storage technologies are rapidly and continuously evolving. For example, with technical advances and a fall in prices, wind and
solar coupled with storage are becoming cost-competitive with fossil fuel power plants. This trend will rise in the future, as
renewables and storage both become more affordable in cost.

The LCOE is an estimation of the cost of production of energy, thus it tells nothing about the price for consumers and is most
meaningful from the investor's point of view. The LCOE is calculated by adding up all costs of production, divided by the total
amount of energy it is expected to generate.

Even Semester 2023-2024

Department of Mechanical Engineering
AAMEC, Kovilvenni-614403
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 CME364 ENERGY STORAGE DEVICES (Google Classroom Code- 2n3iq52)

It : Investment expenditures in the year t

Mt: Operations and maintenance expenditure in the year t

Ft : Fuel expenditures in the year t

Et : electrical energy generated in the year t

r : Discount rate

n : Expected lifetime of system or power station

Pumped Hydropower-The largest Capacity Grid Storage Option

Pumped storage is by far the largest-capacity form of grid energy storage available, and, as of 2020, the United States Department
of Energy Global Energy Storage Database reports that‖ PSH accounted for around 95% of all active tracked storage installations
worldwide, with a total installed throughput capacity of over 181 GW, of which about 29 GW are in the United States, and a total
installed storage capacity of over 1.6 TWh, of which about 250 GWh are in the United States‖. The round-trip energy efficiency
of PSH is reported as 70%–80%. The main disadvantage of PSH is the topographic limitations of the site as well as the
requirements of geographical height and adequate source of water.

Terawatt hours, abbreviated as TWh, is a unit of energy representing one trillion watt hours.

Fig 1 Fig 2

Fig 1 shows Open-loop pumped storage hydropower systems connect a reservoir to a naturally flowing water feature via a tunnel,
using a turbine/pump and generator/motor to move water and create electricity

Fig 2 shows Closed-loop pumped storage hydropower systems connect two reservoirs without flowing water features via a tunnel,
using a turbine/pump and generator/motor to move water and create electricity.

Even Semester 2023-2024

Department of Mechanical Engineering
AAMEC, Kovilvenni-614403
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 CME364 ENERGY STORAGE DEVICES (Google Classroom Code- 2n3iq52)

Pumped storage hydropower (PSH)

It is a type of hydroelectric energy storage. It is a configuration of two water reservoirs at different elevations that can generate
power as water moves down from one to the other (discharge), passing through a turbine.

What is Pumped Storage Hydropower?

Pumped storage hydropower (PSH) is a type of hydroelectric energy storage. It is a configuration of two water reservoirs at
different elevations that can generate power as water moves down from one to the other (discharge), passing through a turbine.
The system also requires power as it pumps water back into the upper reservoir (recharge). PSH acts similarly to a giant battery,
because it can store power and then release it when needed.

What is the efficiency of PSH?

Pumped-storage hydroelectricity taking into account conversion losses and vaporation losses from the exposed water surface,
energy recovery of 70–80% or more can be achieved.

What are the disadvantages of PSH?

Many pumped hydroelectric systems can have negative impacts on land and wildlife. Disruption of fish spawning routes or
creation of large reservoirs that fill canyons or gorges are common concerns. In general, in geographically flat places, PHS may be
difficult to use or may not be used at all.

What is the use of PSH?

Pumped storage hydropower (PSH) is a type of hydroelectric energy storage. It is a configuration of two water reservoirs at
different elevations that can generate power as water moves down from one to the other (discharge), passing through a turbine.

What is the purpose of PSH?

Permanent Supportive Housing (PSH) is permanent housing in which housing assistance (e.g., long-term leasing or rental
assistance) and supportive services are provided to assist households with at least one member (adult or child) with a disability in
achieving housing stability.

Pumped Hydro and Battery Storage-A Comparison

For large capacity storage Pumped hydro (PSH) is considered cheaper compared to other forms of energy storage.
Environmental and Energy Institute reports that “The installed cost for pumped-storage hydropower varies between $1,700 and
$5,100/kW, compared to $2,500/kW to 3,900/kW for lithium-ion batteries”. With 80 percent energy efficiency through a full cycle,
PSH can provide 10 hours of electricity, compared to about 6 hours for lithium-ion batteries. However, Pumped hydro projects
have some cons like they are long-term investments where permitting and construction can take a huge time to the order of many
years. Investors that prefer shorter-term investments in a fast-changing market wouldn’t want to risk investing in PSH projects.

Pumped Hydro and Battery-A Glimpse into future

As renewables fall in prices, we can expect a huge diversification in energy storage solutions. In all likelihood, out of all
commercially available storage technologies available in the near future, batteries and pumped storage will continue to be a
mainstay in the storage sector. With technological advances, newer batteries like redox flow will slowly share storage market
dominance with Li-ion batteries. This will only elevate the status of battery storage solutions by various notches up in the storage
hierarchy. In summary, Batteries will continue to play a significant role in the storage arena, as they are good at providing fast
response times. However, supporting the full range of ancillary services to the grid is an area where they will need to improve
upon. Pumped hydro can cater to ancillary services and hence remains a landmark, proven, and reliable technology. With their
long lifetime as a plus, PSH has the advantage of meeting the demands of the grid and providing sustained output for decades. An
optimized solution in storage will require careful planning and finding the best fit for the particular project-specific
circumstances.

Even Semester 2023-2024

Department of Mechanical Engineering
AAMEC, Kovilvenni-614403
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 CME364 ENERGY STORAGE DEVICES (Google Classroom Code- 2n3iq52)

Mechanical Energy Storage (Reference Text Book1 - Rober Huggins, “Energy Storage: Fundamentals, Materials and
Applications”, 2 nd Edition, Springer, 2015. Pg. no. 55-68)

There are two basic types of energy storage that result from the application of forces upon materials systems. One of these
involves changes in potential energy, and the other involves changes in the motion of mass, and thus kinetic energy. This chapter
focuses upon the major types of potential energy and kinetic energy storage. It will be seen that it is possible to translate between
these two types of energy, as well as to convert these energies to heat or work

Mechanical energy storage works in complex systems that use heat, water or air with compressors, turbines, and other machinery,
providing robust alternatives to electro-chemical battery storage.

What is mechanical stored energy?

Mechanical energy is energy stored in objects by tension. Compressed springs and stretched rubber bands are examples of stored
mechanical energy. Nuclear energy is energy stored in the nucleus of an atom—the energy that holds the nucleus together.

What is the most efficient way of storing mechanical energy?

Flywheels

Flywheels spinning under vacuum and suspended by frictionless magnetic bearings at high speeds are the most efficient devices
for storing mechanical energy. There are no friction forces, and nothing to reduce the rpm. The RPM can vary from 16,000 to
100,000 RPM.

What are the three storage accounts for mechanical energy?

Mechanical Energy Storage Systems—Pumped Storage, Compressed Air Storage, and Flywheel Storage.

What are types of mechanical energy?

There are two types of mechanical energy – motion (kinetic energy) and stored (potential energy). The energy possessed by a
body due to its state of motion is called Kinetic energy. The energy posses by a body due to its state of rest or position is called
potential energy.

Which is the stored form of mechanical energy?

Potential energy

There are two types of mechanical energy – motion (kinetic energy) and stored (potential energy). You can learn more in our
guide that explains potential and kinetic energy. Mechanical conversion depends on the amount of potential energy an object has
an Why is potential energy stored?

Why is potential energy stored?

Potential energy is the stored energy in an object due to its position, properties, and forces acting on it. Common types of potential
energy include gravitational, elastic, magnetic, and electric. These energies relate to an object's position or shape, and their
potential to convert into kinetic energy. d how much kinetic energy it can produce.

What is mechanical energy used for?

It is used to move objects, create conveniences, and help us achieve what we cannot do with human power alone. From
hydropower to wind power to the machines that make the machines that generate electricity, mechanical energy is not only present
but it's the driving force.

What is a mechanical energy example?

One example of mechanical energy is a pendulum swinging back and forth. As the pendulum reaches a peak and stalls, its energy
is all potential. As the pendulum reaches the center of two peaks (the bottom), all of its energy has transformed into kinetic
(energy of motion).
Even Semester 2023-2024
Department of Mechanical Engineering
AAMEC, Kovilvenni-614403
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What are the advantages of mechanical energy storage?

Some of the key advantages of flywheel energy storage are low maintenance, long life (some flywheels are capable of well over
100,000 full depth of discharge cycles and the newest configurations are capable of even more than that, greater than 175,000 full
depth of discharge cycles), and negligible environmental impact .

Unlike chemical-based energy storage systems like batteries, mechanical storage solutions harness kinetic or potential energy to
store power. This approach offers advantages in terms of scalability, longevity, and environmental sustainability.

What is an example of a potential stored energy?

Stored energy can be mechanical, gravitational, hydraulic, or pneumatic. Common examples are: Capacitors, springs; elevated
components; rotating flywheels; hydraulic lift systems; air, gas, steam, water pressure; etc.

What is stored mechanical energy called?

Potential energy comes in forms that are stored including chemical, gravitational, mechanical, and nuclear.

Potential Energy Storage

Potential energy always involves the imposition of forces upon materials systems, and the energy stored is the integral of the force
times the distance over which it operates. Thus,

Energy = ∫ (Force) (Distance)

Consider the application of a tensile stress upon a solid rod, causing it to elongate. This is illustrated simply in Fig. 3. The stress σ
is the force per unit cross-sectional area, and the resultant fractional change in length Δx/x0 is the strain ε.

In metals the strain is proportional to the force, and this can be represented as a stress/strain diagram, as shown in Fig. 4. The
proportionality constant is the Young’s modulus Y, and this linear relation is called ―Hooke’s Law.

Fig 3 Fig 4

Fig 3 Simple example of the elongation of a solid rod as the result of an applied tensile force upon its ends

Fig 4 Schematic stress/strain diagram for an elastic metal

Even Semester 2023-2024

Department of Mechanical Engineering
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 CME364 ENERGY STORAGE DEVICES (Google Classroom Code- 2n3iq52)

If this mechanical deformation is elastic, the work W that is done on the spring is the area under the stress/strain curve. This is
obviously proportional to the magnitude of the applied stress. That is,

1 1
W   e  Y e2
2 2

If this mechanical process is reversible without any losses, the work is equal to the amount of stored energy in this simple system

Fig 5 Schematic stress/strain curve for rubber

In metals and ceramics Young’s modulus is a constant up to a critical value of the stress, called the yield point. This is because the
interatomic forces in such materials are linear at small displacements. At higher values of stress, however, there can be plastic
(non-reversible) deformation, and then, ultimately, fracture. In polymers and rubbers Young’s modulus can vary with the value of
the strain, due to the action of different physical processes in their microstructures. An example of a stress/strain curve for a
common rubber is shown schematically in Fig 5.

The deformation of a metallic spring in a mechanical clock, and the use of stretched rubber bands to power model airplanes are
simple examples of this type of stored mechanical potential energy

Energy Storage in Pressurized Gas

Everyone who has had to pump up a bicycle tire knows that that process requires work, and that the required force becomes
greater as the pressure increases. If there is a leak, or the valve is opened, the gas stored in the tire is released. This is a simple
example of the storage of energy in a gas. It is possible to store energy by making use of the elastic properties of gases in a
manner similar to that of the elastic properties of solids. This can be readily understood by consideration of the ideal gas law, or
the equation of state of an ideal gas, that can be written as

PV = n R T

Fig 6 Elastic behaviour of gas under pressure

Even Semester 2023-2024

Department of Mechanical Engineering
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Where, P is the absolute pressure of the gas, V its volume, n the number of moles, R the gas constant, and T the absolute
temperature. The value of R is 8.314 J mol-1 K-1 , or 0.082 l atm K-1 mol-1 . Using this latter value, the volume of a mole of gas can
be readily found to be 22.4 l at 273 K or 0 oC.

For a constant volume, such as that of a bicycle tire, the pressure is proportional to the amount of gas (air), n, that has been
pumped into it. This can be simply represented as shown in Fig.6, which is seen to be directly analogous to Fig. 4.

Gases can be compressed and stored in simple mechanical tanks, so long as the pressure is not so large as to cause mechanical
damage. This is one of the ways in which the hydrogen used as the fuel in the fuel cells that are being developed for the
propulsion of vehicles is contained. Such tanks have been traditionally made of high-strength metals, but carbon fiber composite
materials, which can have greater strength and lighter weight, are becoming more attractive for use at high pressures. The tanks
that are used to store gaseous hydrogen to power the fuel cells in the automobiles currently under development can operate up to a
pressure of 104 psi. One of these autos carries a total of 8 kg of hydrogen in its tanks.

It is also possible to store gases under elevated pressure in underground cavities, if they are gas tight. This is the case for some
large salt caverns, depleted oil wells, or underground aquifers.

Since this process is generally close to adiabatic if these are done rapidly, heat is given off during compression, and there is
cooling during expansion. Some sort of heat transfer system must be employed to take care of this problem. This can be a serious
consideration. For example, compression to a pressure of 70 atm can produce a temperature of about 1000 K. This can cause the
overall efficiency of a pressure storage system to be significantly reduced.

Potential Energy Storage Using Gravity

Instead of depending upon the elastic properties of solids or gases, there are energy production and storage methods that are based
upon gravitational forces One example that is familiar to many people is a type of clock that is driven by the gravitational force on
a mass, or ―weight.‖ Some of these are called ―grandfather clocks,‖ and others are ―cuckoo clocks.” These types of clocks
evolved from the realization by Galileo in the early 1600s that the period of the swing of a pendulum is independent of its
amplitude, and that this phenomenon might be used for timekeeping. This led to the invention of the pendulum clock by
Christiaan Huygens in 1656, which was shortly followed by the invention of the anchor escapement mechanism by Robert Hooke
in 1657. ―Cuckoo clocks‖ driven by weights have been produced in the Black Forest area of Germany since the middle of the
1700s. They typically include a moving bird, and a small bellows is used to make bird call sound. These have been popular tourist
items for some time. These pendulum-regulated clocks are driven by the action of gravity upon a weight, instead of a metallic
spring. This mechanism is illustrated schematically in fig 7

General Information

Where did cuckoo clocks originate from?

Germany, it is believed that during the 18th-century farmers in south-western Germany started making cuckoo clocks using logs
from the Black Forest. This is widely believed to be the time and the place of the birth of the cuckoo clock.

Fig 7 Schematic illustration of the mechanism used to provide energy to pendulum-

regulated clocks

Even Semester 2023-2024

Department of Mechanical Engineering
AAMEC, Kovilvenni-614403
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 CME364 ENERGY STORAGE DEVICES (Google Classroom Code- 2n3iq52)

In these cases the potential energy involves attractive forces between two bodies, Wpot, where

Mm
Wpot  G
r
G is the gravitational constant 6.67 x 10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2, M is the mass of the earth 5.98 x 10 24 kg , m is the mass being moved and r
is the distance between their centers, thus,

 1 1
Wpot   GMm  -   mg r
 r  r r 

Where, g = GMr-2 = 9.81 ms-2

Hydroelectric Power

Water is evaporated from the earth’s surface by solar energy as part of the global climate cycle. This evaporation is partly from
the land masses, but primarily from the world’s oceans. The moisture rises and condenses to form clouds in the sky, which are
transported by the global air circulation. This moisture can later precipitate in the form of rain or snow, sometimes at higher
elevations. The water from the rain and snow that fall at high altitudes can be stored in reservoirs, from which it can be run
through turbines to lower elevations, producing electricity.

This ―hydroelectric power‖ is a major source of electrical energy in a number of countries, including Switzerland and Norway. It
is also an important component of the total energy picture in parts of the USA.

One of its major advantages us that the flow through the turbines can be turned on and off in response to the current need. This is
not instantaneous, however, for there is a start-up time for the turbines of the order of a few minutes.

There are some disadvantages to this method of energy acquisition and storage as well, for the large reservoirs and their related
water collection areas can require a considerable amount of real estate, and this can become a political problem. In addition, the
dams, themselves, can be quite expensive.

The use of the gravitation force on collected water to produce energy can also involve much smaller scale facilities. Years ago
there were many small water wheels that were driven by falling water to provide either mechanical or electrical output. These
were generally located on smaller waterways, and often used modest millponds to store the water before it was fed onto the water
mills.

Another form of hydroelectric energy production takes advantage of the tidal rise and fall of the ocean surface as the result of the
gravitational forces of the moon and sun, coupled with the effects of the earth’s rotation. Variations in the wind can also have a
temporary effect.

The gravitational effect of the moon would theoretically cause the surface of the ocean to rise about 54 cm at its highest point, if it
were to have a uniform depth, there were no land masses, and the earth were not rotating. The gravitational effect of the sun is
somewhat smaller, theoretically producing an amplitude of about 25 cm under comparable conditions. Tides rise and fall with a
cycle time near 12 h, with their magnitudes dependent upon the relative positions of the sun and the moon. Tides with the greatest
amplitudes occur when the sun and moon are in line, and are called ―spring tides.‖ Those with the smallest amplitudes are ―neap
tides.‖

Tidal amplitudes vary greatly from place to place as well, depending upon variations in local ocean depth as well as the nearby
underwater land mass topography. In some locations the difference between low and high tide is quite large. Examples include
some areas near the English Channel, along the coast of New Zealand, and in the Bay of Fundy and Ungava Bay in Eastern
Canada. Programs have been initiated to make use of the large variations in water level is several locations by the construction of
―impoundment ponds‖ that admit and release seawater through turbines. The power that is generated in this way is, of course,
periodic, related to the timing of the tides.

Even Semester 2023-2024

Department of Mechanical Engineering
AAMEC, Kovilvenni-614403
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 CME364 ENERGY STORAGE DEVICES (Google Classroom Code- 2n3iq52)

Pumped-Hydro Storage

A modification of hydroelectric storage and power is called ―pumped-hydro‖ storage. The general configuration in this case
involves water storage facilities at two different elevations. They can either be natural or artificially constructed, and can have a
wide range of sizes. They could include underground caverns, old mine shafts, volumes formerly occupied by oil, or newly
excavated volume

Water can be run through turbines from the upper one to the lower one, producing electricity, as in simple hydroelectric power
systems. But then water can be pumped back up to the storage area at the higher elevation, effectively recharging the system. In
some cases this involves the use of two-way turbines. This can make sense if the price of electricity varies significantly at
different times of the day or the week. This type of energy storage can be especially useful in connection with daily peak shaving
and load levelling, as well as weekly and seasonal variations in the energy demand.

This scheme is illustrated schematically in Fig.8

Fig 8 Schematic illustration of a pumped hydro system

Whereas the efficiency of large-scale water-driven turbines can be quite high, even over 95 %, the efficiency of the dual-cycle
reversible storage system typically is about 80 %. There are other losses, of course, such as water evaporation from one or both of
the reservoirs, leakage around the turbine, and losses due to friction of the moving water

There are many such pumped-hydro storage systems in the world. Some of them are listed in Table 2

Table 2 Examples of large pumped hydro systems courtesy https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pumped-

storage_hydroelectric_power_stations

Station Country Power Capacity (MW) Storage Capacity (MWh)

Bath County Pumped Storage Station United States 3,003 24,000
Dinorwig Power Station United Kingdom 1,728 9,100
Dniester Pumped Storage Power Station Ukraine 1,296[37]
Mingtan Pumped Storage Hydro Power Plant Taiwan 1,602
Linth-Limmern Pumped Storage Station Switzerland 1,480
Cortes La Muela Power Station [es] Spain 1,490 24,496
Yangyang Pumped Storage Power Station South Korea 1,000
Ingula Pumped Storage Scheme South Africa 1,332 21,000
Zagorsk Pumped Storage Station Russia 1,200
Vianden Pumped Storage Plant Luxembourg 1,296 4,917
Okutataragi Pumped Storage Power Station Japan 1,932 15,546
Entracque Power Plant Italy 1,184 17,040
Siah Bishe Pumped Storage Power Plant Iran 1,040

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Sardar Sarovar Dam India 1,450

Goldisthal Pumped Storage Station Germany 1,060 8,480
Grand'Maison Dam France 1,800 34,800
Fengning Pumped Storage Power Station China 3,600 40,000
Coo-Trois-Ponts Hydroelectric Power Station Belgium 1,164 5,820
Tumut-3 Australia 1,800

What is the largest pumped hydro project in the world?

―The Pioneer-Burdekin Pumped Hydro Project is the cornerstone of the Queensland Energy and Jobs Plan, and will be the largest
pumped hydro scheme in the world,‖ Queensland energy minister Mick deBrenni said.

Which is the largest pumped hydro storage in India?

Energy company Greenko Group officially inaugurated the construction of its massive 1,440-megawatt (MW) pumped hydro
storage project in Madhya Pradesh, the largest in India.

Use of the Kinetic Energy in Moving Water

It is possible to extract power from moving water by the immersion of a water driven propeller or turbine. This could be done in
flowing rivers, where the flow is relatively constant with time. It also can be done in locations in which there are significant tidal
currents. In this case, however, the current, and thus the power available, are periodic, with rather substantial periods between.
Whereas this may appear to be rather simple, some practical matters require attention. These include seawater corrosion and the
growth of barnacles and other biological species on underwater surfaces. Some recent designs involve retractable propellers that
can be periodically cleaned.

Kinetic Energy in Mechanical Systems

In addition to potential energy, it is also possible to store kinetic energy. This is energy that is related to the motion of mass. This
will be discussed in two parts, linear motion of a mass, and rotational motion of mass.

The kinetic energy Ekin related to a body in linear motion can be written as

1
E kin  mv 2
2
where m is its mass, and v its linear velocity. A simple hammer is an example of this principle. The kinetic energy in its moving
mass is utilized to drive nails, as well as for other purposes. A somewhat more exotic example involves hybrid automobiles. In
some of the current hybrid internal combustion/electric vehicles an electric motor/generator in the drive train drives the wheels. It
is fed from a high-rate battery (sometimes called a ―super capacitor‖) that is recharged as needed by an efficient internal
combustion engine.

When the vehicle is slowed down, or braked, the motor/generator operates in reverse, and some of the vehicle’s kinetic energy is
converted to electrical energy that is fed back into the battery. This energy can then be used subsequently for propulsion. The
amount of this recovered energy is typically about 10 % of the basic propulsion energy in urban driving. This system is shown
schematically in Fig 9.

A variant on this model is the ―plug-in hybrid,‖ in which the net energy consumed from the battery is replaced by the use of an
electrical recharger when the vehicle is not being used. This might involve connection to the electrical system of a home
overnight,

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Fig 9 Schematic representation of the interaction between the internal combustion engine and the battery in a hybrid vehicle

Rotational Kinetic Energy

1
Kinetic energy is also present when a body is rotated. In this case, E kin  I2
2
Where I is the moment of inertia and ω is the angular velocity.

Flywheels can be used for the purpose of storing kinetic energy, and there are ready methods whereby this mechanical energy can
be converted to and from electrical energy.

The moment of inertia of a rotating body can be expressed as

I = ∫ ρ (x) r2 dx

where ρ(x) is the mass distribution, and r is the distance from the center of rotation. Thus the magnitude of the kinetic energy in a
rotational system is increased if the rotational velocity ω is large and I is large. The latter can be achieved by having a large mass
at a large value of r.

Consideration must be given to the strength of the material from which the flywheel is constructed, for it must be able to
withstand the centrifugal force. This can be represented schematically as shown in Fig. 10

Force = ( mass ) (acceleration ) = mrω2

Flywheels also store energy in the form of mechanical strain potential energy— like springs—due to the forces upon them. The
magnitude of this potential energy is small, for example, 5 %, compared to their kinetic energy, however. Another consideration in
the use of flywheels is rate at which energy can be added or deleted. That is, their power. The maximum power that can be applied
or extracted is determined by the mechanical properties of the central shaft. The maximum torque τmax that can be withstood can
be expressed as
2
 max    S R 30
3
Where, R0 is the shaft radius and σs is the maximum shear strength of the shaft material.

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The maximum rotational velocity of a flywheel is related to the strength of its material by

1
1  2  max 2
 max   
r  
This is a very large number. Thus flywheels are very good at handling high power, and therefore energy transients. For
comparison, the power per unit weight of a typical battery might be of the order of 100 W/kg. Aerodynamic drag can be
substantial in high-velocity flywheels. As a result, they are typically operated under vacuum conditions.

Internal Structural Energy Storage

It is also possible to introduce a different type of mechanical energy into solid materials by plastically deforming them such that
changes occur in their micro structure. These can involve changes in the concentrations or distributions of dislocations or
crystallographic point defects during mechanical deformation or irradiation. In some extreme cases, such as heavy forging at
elevated temperatures, this can become quite evident, for it can be seen from color changes that the extensive mechanical
deformation causes the internal temperature to rise. Although at least some of this energy can be recovered upon annealing, this
increase of the internal energy in solids is not readily reversible, and is therefore not of interest for the types of applications that
are generally considered in this text

Thermal Energy Storage (Reference Text Book1 - Rober Huggins, “Energy Storage: Fundamentals, Materials and
Applications”, 2 nd Edition, Springer, 2015. Pg. no. 21-27)

What is thermal energy storage system?

Thermal energy storage (TES) systems can store heat or cold to be used later, at different conditions such as temperature, place, or
power. TES systems are divided in three types: sensible heat, latent heat, and sorption and chemical energy storage (also known as
thermochemical).

What is the best thermal energy storage?

1) Water; probably the best medium

2) Cheap.

3) Safe.

4) Readily available.

5) High in thermal capacity.

6) Very adaptable – in terms of its use through heating systems and heat generators.

Is thermal energy storage efficient?

Thermal energy storage systems can approach 100% efficiencies and can be used by all customers using electricity for heating or
air conditioning. Since heating and air conditioning represent a major component of peak demand loads, this technology can have
a major impact.

How is thermal energy storage used?

Thermal energy storage is like a battery for a building's air-conditioning system as shown in fig 10. It uses standard cooling
equipment, plus an energy storage tank to shift all or a portion of a building's cooling needs to off-peak, night time hours. During
off-peak hours, ice is made and stored inside Ice Bank energy storage tanks.

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Fig 10 Thermal Energy Storage

What are 5 examples of thermal energy?

Examples of thermal energy include heaters that make a room warmer, the sun drying wet clothes on a clothesline, ironing a shirt,
baking a cake, and warming water to make tea. Any object or substance that is warm is emitting thermal energy.

What are the advantages of thermal energy storage?

Provides backup when heating or cooling generating equipment fails. Thermal storage generally better than batteries for storing
heat or cooling. Many applications of thermal energy storage. Thermal energy storage can save energy consumed and cost.

What materials are used in thermal storage? (Courtesy https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S2666202723000459-gr1_lrg.jpg)

The materials utilized in thermal energy storage systems vary based on the storage method. In Q S,stor systems, natural rocks, oils,
molten salts, and organic liquids are the most commonly used materials, whereas, in QL,stor systems organic, inorganic, and
eutectic materials are the most commonly employed.

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Is fire a thermal energy?

Fire is a chemical reaction, specifically a combustion reaction. The result of this reaction is thermal energy, which radiates from
the reaction.

How long can thermal energy be stored?

While many applications of sensible heat storage store thermal energy to release it just hours later, in several cases heat is stored
for days, weeks and even months. In an experimental solar community in Alberta, Canada, heat produced by solar collectors in
summer is stored in giant water-filled boreholes underground.

How do you calculate thermal energy storage capacity?

Q = M * Cp * (T1 - T2) where Q is energy, M is mass, Cp is specific heat capacity and T are the temperatures. Cp is available for
various temperatures - 4.18 KJ /Kg / K at 20 deg C

What are the different types of thermal storage systems?

There are two main types of thermal energy storage. The first type of thermal energy storage is sensible heat storage. In this type,
heat energy is stored in either liquid material or solid material. The second type of thermal energy storage is latent heat storage.

What is a thermal energy store?

What is a thermal store? A thermal store is a way of storing and managing renewable heat until it is needed. Heated water is
usually stored in a large, well-insulated cylinder often called a buffer or accumulator tank

What is Thermal Energy Storage?

Thermal energy storage is defined as a technology that allows the transfer and storage of heat energy or energy from ice or water
or cold air. This method is built into new technologies that complement energy solutions like solar and hydro.

The thermal energy(either chilled or hot water) is produced in the periods of off-peak electrical demand or utilisation and
collected in a thermal energy storage tank, then withdrawn and distributed to the facility during peak periods. The hot or chilled
water enters and exits the tank via diffusers located at the top and base of the tank. The diffusers are designed to erase turbulence
and allow the water in the tank to stratify with cooler water at the base and hot water at the top. A narrow and sharp transition
layer of water forms between the regions of warm and cold water.

Suppose there is a party and you are not likely to make ice when people arrive. You would buy ice, store it in a freezer and use it
when required. The process of thermal energy is very much similar. The electricity you utilise to make that ice is less expensive at
night than during the daytime.

How does Thermal Storage Energy Work?

At night time during off-peak hours, the water containing 25% ethylene glycol is cooled by a chiller. The solution gets circulated
in the heat exchanger within the ice bank, freezing 95% of the water that surrounds the heat exchanger in the ice bank, freezing
95% of the water that is present around the heat exchanger in the tank. The water around the heat exchanger never exits the tank.

Ice is formed uniformly in the ice bank tank via counter flow heat exchanging tubes. As ice is made, the water still flows freely
which prevents damage to the tank. The ice bank tank takes between six and 12 hours to charge completely.

On peak hours during the daytime, the glycol solution circulates via the ice storage tank to deliver the stored energy to the
building to augment electric chiller cooling. The cold glycol gets delivered at a proper temperature to the cooling coil in the air.

The fan blows air on the coils to supply cooling to the occupant spaces. People feel cold and never know that ice storage is being
used to save money on the cost of cooling. The schematic diagram as shown in fig 10.

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Thermal Energy Storage Applications:

1) The thermal energy storage applications can be applied in the following fields.

2) In concentrating solar power plants to supply dispatchable power even during the night.

3) In thermal power plants to operate more and rapid load changes.

4) Provide heat supply security in combined heat and power plants and temporally separate the heat and power
generation.

5) To recover and utilise heat in process industries which is otherwise lost.

Significant portion of the total energy use is for temperature control and lighting in living and working spaces. Energy use for
lighting purposes comprises between 20 and 50 % of the total energy used in homes, and varies appreciably with both location and
time of the year, of course. This is expected to decrease substantially as the result of the use of fluorescent and light-emitting-
diode (LED) devices in the future.

Residential and commercial heating and cooling needs are currently mostly taken care of by the use of gas or electric heating and
electrically powered air conditioning. This energy requirement can also be reduced appreciably by various measures. Among these
is the reduction of heat transfer to and from the environment by the use of better insulation. Another is to make use of thermal
energy storage systems. Thermal energy storage is also used in large-scale power plants, although that will not be included here.
Discussions of these matters can be found in several places

Household hot water systems in the United States typically have a gas- or electrically-heated water heater and storage tank, from
which water is distributed using pipes throughout the dwelling. There is thus heat loss from the distribution piping as well as
through the insulation on the storage tank. A different system is used in parts of Europe, where energy is more expensive. This
involves local heating of water where, and only when, it is needed. Thus there are essentially no storage losses

In addition to the storage of heat in order to maintain something at a high temperature, the main topic of this chapter, thermal
energy storage methods are also sometimes used to maintain cold temperatures for the storage of food or for other chiller
applications.

There are two general types of thermal storage mechanisms. As will be seen below, one is based upon the use of the sensible heat
in various solid and/or liquid materials. The other involves the latent heat of phase change reactions.

Sensible Heat

Energy can be added to a material by simply heating it to a higher temperature. The energy that is involved in changing its
temperature is called ―sensible heat,‖ and its amount is simply the product of the specific heat and the temperature change. This
sensible heat can be transferred to another, cooler, material, or to the environment, by radiation, convection, or conduction. Thus
this is a method for storing energy in the form of heat, and transferring it again. A simple example is the traditional procedure of
using a hot rock or a hot water bottle to pre-warm a bed before going to sleep. This type of energy storage has also been used to
control the temperature in living or working spaces. In some cases the amount of storage material that is needed can be quite large,
so that there is the obvious concern about its cost. This results in the use of relatively simple and inexpensive materials. Data on
the thermal capacity of some examples are presented in Table 3

Table 3 Thermal properties of some

common materials

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The amount of heat q that can be transferred from a given mass of material at one temperature to another at a lower temperature is
given by

q = ρ CPV ΔT

Where, ρ is the density, Cp the specific heat at constant pressure, and V the volume of the storage material. ΔT is the temperature
difference.

On the other hand, some of the inexpensive bulk solids can be used over a wider range of temperature, and they can be more
compact, due to their higher densities. An additional factor that may be important in some cases is the thermal conductivity of the
storage material, for that influences the rate at which heat can be either absorbed or extracted. No matter how well the system is
insulated, there are always some losses when using this method. Thus the insulation or thermal isolation of the storage material
can be quite important, particularly if the storage period is substantial. The rate of heat loss to the surroundings is proportional to
the surface area, and also to the temperature difference, but the total amount of thermal storage is proportional to the volume of
any storage container. Therefore, it is more effective to use large vessels with shapes that are not far from spherical

Latent Heat

A different mechanism for the storage of energy involves using phase transitions with no change in the chemical composition. The
temperature dependences of the Gibbs free energy G, the enthalpy H, and the total entropy S for a simple metal, pure aluminium,
are shown in fig. 10.that there is a jump in the value of the entropy, and a corresponding change in the enthalpy, or heat content,
but not of the Gibbs free energy, at the melting point of aluminium, a simple metal. This is characteristic of phase transitions in
elements and compounds that melt congruently; that is, the solid and liquid phases have the same chemical composition. There are
also phase transitions in which both phases are solids. As an example, there is a transition between the alpha and beta phases in
titanium at 882 C. The alpha, lower temperature, phase has a hexagonal crystal structure, whereas the beta phase has a body-
centered cubic crystal structure. Because they have different crystal structures they have different values of configurational
entropy, and there is a corresponding difference in their enthalpy values. In these cases latent heat is absorbed or supplied at a
constant temperature, rather than over a range of temperature, as it is with sensible heat. Isothermal latent heat systems are
generally physically much smaller than sensible heat systems of comparable capacity. A further simple example is water. At low
temperatures it is solid, at intermediate temperatures it becomes a liquid, and at high temperatures it converts to a gas. Thus it can
undergo two phase transitions, with associated changes in entropy and enthalpy. The Gibbs free energy, or chemical potential, is
continuous, for the two phases are in equilibrium with each other at the transition temperature.

Fig 11 Thermodynamic data for pure aluminium. Dimensions are J/K mol for S, and kJ/mol for H and G

From ΔG = ΔH - TΔS = 0

The change in heat content ΔH at the transition temperature is equal to TΔS at that temperature

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Inorganic Phase Change Materials

There are a number of other materials that also undergo congruent phase transitions. Data on some simple inorganic materials are
given in Table 4 There are also many cases in which liquids convert isothermally into two or more phases with different
compositions by means of eutectic reactions upon cooling, with accompanying heat evolution.

In addition to the phase changes involved in the conversion of solids into liquids, there are a number of cases in which there is a
phase change in the solid state. These involve changes in the crystal structure, and thus changes in the entropy and the heat content
at temperatures below their melting points. These materials can be used to store thermal energy at the temperatures of their solid-
state phase transitions. Some examples are given in Table 5

Table 4 Heat of fusion data for several simple inorganic materials

Table 5 Data on solid-state phase transition and melting entropy for a number of materials

There are several features of the data in this table that deserve comment. The total entropy change, and thus the heat absorbed,
between the low temperature solid state and the molten state is divided between that which occurs at the solid state phase
transition and that which occurs upon melting. In general, the crystal structures below and above solid state transformations are
not very different. As a result, the entropy changes that are involved are not very large, and most of the total entropy changes
occur at the melting point. An example of this type that is included in Table 5 is FeS.

But there are some materials in which the higher temperature solid phase has a crystal structure in which one of the atomic species
has an unusual vibrational amplitude or inter-site mobility. When that phase is stable it has a high value of entropy. Thus the
entropy change in its formation is large. Two examples of this are shown in Table 5; AgI and Ag2 S. Silver ions have an unusually
large vibrational amplitude and high mobility in the higher temperature phases of both of these materials. AgI is called a fast ionic
conductor, and Ag2S is a fast mixed conductor. The difference is that Ag2S is an electronic, as well as an ionic, conductor,
whereas AgI is an electronic insulator. Na2SO4 and Ag2SO4 are two additional examples of materials with this type of behaviour.
In these cases the sodium and silver ions are relatively mobile, and the SO 4 tetrahedral groups are essentially static parts of the

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crystal structure. However, there are some other materials in which the type of structural disorder that leads to large values of
entropy is quite different. Whereas atomic or ionic motion in most solids, including AgI and Ag 2S, involves species either
jumping into adjacent crystallographic vacancies or between dilutely occupied interstitial positions, some materials have been
found in which atomic motion occurs in coordinated groups. That is, groups of atoms move together. This type of atomic motion
occurs in a group of lithium sulfates. It was found that these materials can also have unusually high values of ionic conductivity,
different from that of the sodium and silver analogs. The structural reason for this is that there is rotation of SO 4 groups within the
―static‖ crystal structure that assists in the longerrange transport of the lithium ions. This was first described as a cogwheel
mechanism, but it is now generally referred to as a paddlewheel mechanism. These materials also exhibit a high degree of
mechanical plasticity, and are sometimes also called plastic crystals.

Organic Phase Change Materials

In addition to these inorganic materials, it is also possible to take advantage of analogous behaviour in organic materials. Data for
some simple organic materials with large values of the heat of fusion are shown in Table 6, and the thermal properties of fatty
acids and two simple aromatic materials are presented in Tables 7 and 8

Table 6 Data relating to some organic phase change materials

Table 7 Data relating to some fatty acids used as phase change materials

Table 8 Some aromatics used as phase change materials

Heat Pumps

Although they are not involved in the storage of heat, the topic of this chapter, it seems desirable to briefly discuss heat pumps.
They can be used to move heat from one location to another. There are two general types of such systems. One involves the input
of mechanical work to move low temperature heat from one location to another location at a higher temperature. In a second type,
which is sometimes called a chemical heat pump, the important feature is the temperature dependence of a chemical reaction. An
example of this method is a system involving metal hydride materials in two locations, one that is at a high temperature in which
there is heat input, and one that is cooler. Heat is moved by the movement of a chemical species, such as hydrogen, from one
location to another.

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What is organic phase change material?

Organic phase-change materials. Organic PCMs (OPCMs) are divided into two groups such as paraffins and nonparaffins .They
undergo consistent melting without phase segregation and the resulting degradation of their latent heat of transformation.

What is the classification of PCMs?

PCMs have been classified into four basic categories, as shown in Fig. 12, based on their physical characteristics: solid–solid
PCMs, solid–liquid PCMs, solid–gas PCMs, and liquid–gas PCMs

Fig 12 PCM’s

What is a material that is changing phase?

Phase change materials (PCMs) are substances which absorb or release large amounts of so-called 'latent' heat when they go
through a change in their physical state, i.e. from solid to liquid and vice versa.

What are the materials used in phase change in electronics?

Overview of PCM applications in electronic components. Phase change materials (PCM) represents a type of material which
undergoes through a solid–liquid state change during the charging/discharging processes, thus exploiting the latent heat of the
material as shown in fig 13 a & b

Fig 13a & b Phase Change in

Electronics

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Where are phase change materials used?

PCMs can be used to provide district cooling (subambient transition temperatures especially <0 °C), to buffer thermal swings in
buildings (near ambient transition temperatures), and to store solar thermal energy for short-term or seasonal applications (higher
transition temperatures).

What are the most used phase change materials?

The commonly used phase change materials for technical applications are: paraffins (organic), salt hydrates (inorganic) and fatty
acids (organic) .For cooling applications, it is also possible to use ice storage.

What are the 7 types of phase changes?

There are six changes of phase that substances go through:

1) Freezing: liquid to solid.

2) Melting: solid to liquid.

3) Condensation: gas to liquid.

4) Vaporization: liquid to gas.

5) Sublimation: solid to gas.

6) Deposition: gas to solid.

What are the types of phase change material?

Categories of PCMs include organic, inorganic, and eutectic materials. Each has its advantages. Organic PCMs tend to be less
prone to phase separation and are less corrosive. Inorganic materials often deliver higher storage capacities and better thermal
conductivity.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of PCMs?

PCMs can be either organic or inorganic materials. Advantages of organic PCMs include no corrosives, low or no
undercooling, and chemical and thermal stability. Disadvantages include low phase-change enthalpy, low thermal
conductivity, and flammability.

What is the principle of phase change material?

Phase change materials (PCMs) are substances that absorb and release thermal energy during the process of melting and
solidifying. When a PCM melts, it absorbs a large amount of heat (energy) from the environment. Conversely, when a PCM
solidifies it releases a large amount of energy in the form of latent heat.

What are the phase changes of thermal energy?

There are eight thermal processes through which matter can attain phase change. They are melting, freezing, evaporation,
condensation, sublimation, deposition, ionization, and recombination. These eight phases exist under different temperatures and
pressure conditions.

Is water inorganic or organic?

Inorganic

Water is a compound composed of Hydrogen and Oxygen atoms connected by covalent bonds. Inorganic substances won't contain
a Carbon atom, whereas organic substances contain several. Thus, water is an inorganic compound because it does not contain
carbon and it was not formed by a living organism.

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What are PCMs commonly used for?

PCMs are used in many different commercial applications where energy storage and/or stable temperatures are required,
including, among others, heating pads, cooling for telephone switching boxes, and clothing. By far the biggest potential market is
for building heating and cooling.

What is an example of thermal energy storage?

1) Sensible heat storage

2) Molten salt technology

3) Heat storage in tanks or rock caverns

4) Hot silicon technology

5) Molten aluminum

6) Heat storage in hot rocks or concrete.

7) Miscibility gap alloy technology.

8) Ice-based technology

9) Cryogenic energy storage

What are the different types of thermal energy storage systems?

Thermal energy storage (TES) systems can store

heat or cold to be used later, under varying
conditions such as temperature, place or power.
TES systems are divided in three types: sensible
heat, latent heat, and thermochemical as shown in
fig 14 a, b& c

Fig 14 a, b & c Different types of thermal energy

storage systems

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What are organic and inorganic materials examples?

Fats, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, enzymes, proteins, and hydrocarbon fuels are examples of organic molecules. Non-metals,
salts, metals, acids, bases, and things derived from a single element are examples of inorganic compounds.

What are the components of a thermal energy storage system?

The basic components of a TES system are three i) the Heat Storage Material; ii) the heat-exchange system between HSM and
HTF; iii) the containment and thermal insulation system

Classification of Thermal Energy Storage

Fun Facts about Thermal Energy Storage

1. The sun is millions of kilometres away but it still controls the temperature of the earth.

2. Thermal energy is transferred to the earth from the sun through processes called radiation.

3. Thermal energy is also called heat energy.

4. Thermal conductors allow heat or cool to flow through them easily.

5. Conductors of thermal energy maintain temperatures and keep them steady.

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Chemical Energy Storage

What is chemical energy storage system?

Energy stored in the form of chemical fuels that can be readily converted to mechanical, thermal or electrical energy for industrial
and grid applications. Power generation systems can leverage chemical energy storage for enhanced flexibility.

What is a chemical energy store?

Chemical energy is energy stored in the bonds of chemical compounds, like atoms and molecules. This energy is released when a
chemical reaction takes place. Usually, once chemical energy has been released from a substance, that substance is transformed
into a completely new substance.

What are the ways of storing chemical energy?

Chemical energy storage technologies are mainly constituted by batteries (secondary and flow batteries) and renewable generated
chemicals (hydrogen, fuel cell, SNG, and hydrocarbons). Batteries as electrochemical energy storage bring great promise in a
range of small-scale to large-scale applications.

What are other examples of stored chemical energy?

Stored chemical energy can be found in:

1) Biomass

2) Coal

3) Chemical batteries

4) Vehicle air bags

The energy stored in chemical compounds such as the food we eat, coal, petrol, and in a cell or battery. For example, a cell and a
battery have chemical energy stored in them. When they are connected with electrical equipment, the stored chemical energy is
converted into electrical energy.

Chemical energy is energy that is stored in the bonds between chemical compounds, such as atoms and molecules.
A chemical reaction is the process of atoms being rearranged due to a chemical change, resulting in a new substance being
produced.
An exothermic reaction is a form of chemical reaction when heat is produced as a by-product.

What is chemical energy used for?

In a battery, chemical reactions push electrons to form an electrical current that powers the tools of our everyday lives:
smartphones, watches, computers, flashlights, and generators are just a few examples. On a biological level, chemical energy fuels
plants and animals by converting their food to sustain them.

What are the advantages of chemical energy?

Chemical energy is abundant and can be found in many different forms, from food to fossil fuels. Chemical energy can be easily
stored in batteries and other forms of storage. Chemical energy can be converted into different forms of energy, such as heat, light,
and electricity.

Is chemical energy renewable?

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Fossil fuels are all harnessed for the chemical energy they store. These are non-renewable resources - they are finite and limited in
quantity.

In short Chemical Energy storage is Energy stored in the form of chemical fuels that can be readily converted to mechanical,
thermal or electrical energy for industrial and grid applications.

Technology Examples of Chemical Energy Storage

Methane has a larger volumetric energy density compared to hydrogen, and there is significant existing infrastructure for
transportation and handling of methane. Hydrogen and captured CO2 can be used to produce synthetic methane, which can be
stored or used within the existing natural gas grid.

Methanol is formed through the hydrogenation of CO and CO2 and, as a liquid chemical, can be easily stored and transported
relative to other fuels. Methanol can be converted into a variety of other chemicals and may also have potential as a
transportation fuel.

Ammonia is another potential energy carrier and can be formed from hydrogen and nitrogen. Like methane, there is existing
infrastructure for the transportation of ammonia (due to its widespread use as fertilizer). The use of ammonia directly as a fuel for
power generation systems (combustion turbines, reciprocating engines, etc.) is a current area of research.

Hydrogen is commonly suggested for chemical energy storage due to the variety of low-carbon production methods and end-use
applications.

Advantages of Chemical Energy Storage

1) Large storage capacities possible

2) Long discharge durations achievable (days-weeks-months)

3) Many pathways for production, storage and end use

4) Long lifetime

5) Provides the potential for alternate revenue streams outside of electricity sales

6) Extensive infrastructure for transportation and handling exists for some chemicals

7) Liquid chemicals (like methanol) may be easier to store and transport

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Disadvantages and Challenges of Chemical Energy Storage

1) Some storage methods are dependent on regional geology aspects (i.e. Underground storage) and may have large land
requirements

2) Safety hazards associated with chemical physical properties Chemicals with low volumetric energy densities require
larger

3) Storage volumes which can be expensive

4) Lower round trip efficiency for electricity storage and recovery as compared to battery storage

A chemical energy storage system is the only idea that allows for the long-term storage of significant amounts of energy,
up to TWh, even as periodic accumulation. SNG and hydrogen may be used in a range of industries, including commuting,
movement, heating, and the chemical industry. They have lesser overall efficiency than PHS and Li-ion storage technologies, but
are more cost efficient and effective than ordinary batteries.

Hydrogen (H2) An electrolyzer is a type of electrochemical converter that splits water into hydrogen and oxygen using electricity.
It is an endothermic reaction, which indicates that heat is required throughout the process. Hydrogen may be stored under pressure
in gas bottles or tanks for nearly indefinite periods of time. Electrolysis releases oxygen into the environment rather than retaining
it, and oxygen from the air is utilized to create electricity.

Synthetic Natural Gas (SNG) Methane (synthetic natural gas or SNG) may be synthesized to store energy. SNG can be stored in
pressure tanks, underground, or fed directly into the gas infrastructure. To prevent energy losses, CO2 and H2 transport to the
methanation plant should be avoided. The fundamental drawback of SNG is its low efficiency as a result of conversion losses in
electrolysis, methanation, storage, transport, and power production. The overall AC-AC efficiency of 35% is significantly lower
than that of hydrogen.

The classifications of EES are as follows:

Double-Layer Capacitors (DLC) DLCs, also known as super-capacitors, are a 60-year-old electrochemical double-layer
capacitor (DLC) technology. The extremely high capacitance values, on the order of thousands of farads, and the capability to
charge and discharge very fast due to extremely low inner resistance are the two important properties. This technology offers a lot
of space for advancement because it might result in substantially greater capacitance and energy density than standard capacitors,
permitting for more compact designs. Durability, dependability, no maintenance, prolonged lifetime, and functioning across a
wide temperature range are further benefits. With the exception of the chemical used in capacitors, which deteriorate in 5–6 years
regardless of the number of cycles, the lifetime surpasses one million cycles without degradation. The efficiency is often more
than 90%, with discharge times varying from seconds to hours. DLCs are not suitable for long-term energy storage due to their
high self discharge rate, low energy density, and hefty investment needs. As a UPS, a DLC is excellent for bridging small power
disruptions. The electric automobile might be used in a unique way, as a buffer system for acceleration and regenerative braking.

Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) SMES devices store magnetic energy in a magnetic field that is generated
by a superconducting coil held less than its critical temperature. A temperature of around 4 °K was required at the early age but
now materials with higher critical temperatures (about 100 °K) have been developed and are now accessible. Particle detectors for
high-energy scientific experiments and nuclear fusion use large SMES systems with more than 10 MW of power. The main
benefits of SMES are high overall round-trip efficiency (85–90%), the extremely high power output and the extremely fast
reaction time: the required power is practically instantly accessible. The energy can be stored basically as long as the cooling
system is running, but longer storage times are restricted by the refrigeration system’s energy demand.

Electrochemical Energy Storage (Reference Text Book1 - Rober Huggins, “Energy Storage: Fundamentals, Materials and
Applications”, 2 nd Edition, Springer, 2015. Pg. no. 119-142)

Electrochemical energy storage devices have the ability to make a major contribution to the deployment of sustainable energy.
Electrochemical energy storage is based on systems with high energy density (batteries) or power density (electrochemical
capacitors). High energy and high power densities in the same material are increasingly required in current and near-future

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applications. These are categorized in two types: secondary batteries and flow batteries. The secondary batteries have again
classified into following types: lead–acid, NiCd/NiMH, Li-ion, metal–air, sodium–sulfur and sodium–nickel chloride.

Secondary Batteries A secondary battery, or charge accumulator, is a cell or set of cells with reversible cell processes. This
implies that the original chemical conditions inside the cell can be restored by allowing current to flow into it, i.e., charging from
outside

Lead–Acid Battery (LA) Lead–acid batteries are the most widely used form of battery in the world, dating back to roughly 1890.
Service life is typically 6–15 years, with a service life of 1500 cycles at a % depth of discharge and a cycle efficiency of 80–90%.
The downsides are lower energy density and the use of lead, a dangerous element that is prohibited or restricted in some locations.
Advantages include a good cost/performance ratio, simple recyclability, and a simple charging method. The current focus of lead–
acid battery development is to improve their efficiency for micro-hybrid electric vehicles.

Nickel–Cadmium and Nickel–Metal Hydride Battery (NiCd, NiMH) Before the commercial launch of nickel–metal hydride
(NiMH) batteries in 1995, nickel–cadmium (NiCd) batteries had been in use since around 1915. NiMH batteries contain all of the
advantages of NiCd batteries, such as greater power density, marginally better energy density, and a larger number of cycles, with
the exception of a 10-fold lower maximum nominal capacity. They are far more robust and secure than lithium-ion batteries.
However, due to the toxicity of cadmium, they have been limited for consumer use since 2006. NiMH batteries are currently about
the same cost as Li-ion battery packs.

Lithium-Ion Battery (Li-Ion) Lithium-ion batteries have been the most important form of storage in portable and mobile
applications since about the year 2000. With a cell voltage of only 1.2 Volts, one lithium-ion cell may substitute three NiCd or
NiMH batteries. The most significant impediment is the high cost of the unique packaging and incorporated overload protection
circuits. Safety is a serious problem in lithium-ion battery technology. Most metal oxide electrodes are thermally unstable and can
melt at high temperatures. Lithium-ion batteries feature a monitoring device that prevents overcharging and discharging to lessen
this risk. A voltage regulation circuit is often provided to monitor and avoid voltage changes in each individual cell. Lithium-ion
battery technology is constantly improving, with plenty of possibilities for advancement. The evolution of cathode materials is
being studied. The construction of typical Li-ion battery module is depicted in Figure 15.

Fig 15 Typical Li-ion battery module.

Metal–Air Battery A metal–air electrochemical cell’s anode is made of pure metal, while the cathode is connected to an infinite
supply of air. In the electrochemical process, only oxygen from the air is used. Because of its greater specific energy excluding
oxygen (theoretically 11.14 kWh/kg), the lithium air battery is the most enticing of the several metal–air battery chemical couples.
Due to lithium’s high reactivity to air and humidity, it can catch fire, creating a serious safety risk. Only a zinc–air battery with a
theoretical specific energy of 1.35 kWh/kg (without oxygen) is theoretically practical at the moment. It is difficult to design
rechargeable zinc–air cells since zinc precipitation from the water-based electrolyte must be properly handled. Although a viable,
electrically rechargeable metal–air system could offer low material costs and high specific energy, none has yet attained
marketability.

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Sodium–Sulphur Battery (NaS) In sodium–sulfur batteries, a solid beta-alumina ceramic electrolyte isolates the active
constituents (molten sulfur at the anode and molten sodium at the cathode). NaS batteries have a discharge time of 6.0 to 7.2 h and
a standard life cycle of around 4500. They are both effective and quick to respond (round-trip efficiency based on AC is around
75%). Over 200 places in Japan have tested the NaS battery technology, largely for peak shaving. Many countries employ NaS
batteries as well. Although the lack of a heat source is a significant drawback, with correctly sized insulation, the heat developed
in the battery may be managed in frequent use by its own reaction heat. These batteries are suited for high-frequency cycling
applications. The construction of typical NaS battery module is depicts in Figure 16.

Figure 16. NaS battery system.

Sodium–Nickel Chloride Battery (NaNiCl) The sodium–nickel chloride (NaNiCl) battery, also known as the ZEBRA battery is
a high-temperature (HT) battery that, like the NaS battery, has been available on the market since approximately 1995. NaNiCl
batteries outperform NaS batteries in terms of safety and cell voltage, and they can withstand limited overload and discharge.
These batteries have been employed effectively in a variety of electric vehicle designs, and they are a viable alternative for fleet
applications. Upgraded variants of the ZEBRA battery with greater power density values for hybrid electric vehicles, as well as
high-energy versions for conserving renewable power for load-leveling and industrial purposes, are presently being developed.

Flow Batteries NASA invented flow batteries in the early 1970s as an EES for long-term space flights [25]. They have the
potential to store energy for hours or days and have a power of many megawatts. Flow batteries are of two types: redox flow
batteries and hybrid flow batteries.

Redox Flow Battery (RFB) The electrolytes present at the negative and positive electrodes of a redox flow battery are anolyte and
catholyte. During discharge, electrodes are continually provided with dissolved active masses from the tanks; once converted, the
product is returned to the tank. During the charge exchange, a current flows between the electrodes, which may be used by a
battery-powered device. Redox flow batteries are being studied for use in electric vehicles; however, electrolyte energy density
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has proved too low thus far. An RFB may potentially be ―refilled‖ in minutes by draining out the emptied electrolyte and
replacing it with recharged electrolyte. In RFBs today, many redox couples, such as a Fe-Ti system or a poly S-Br system, have
been investigated and tested is shown in Figure 17.

Figure 17 Redox Flow Battery

Hybrid Flow Battery (HFB) One active mass in a hybrid flow battery (HFB) is kept within the electrochemical cell, while the
other is kept externally. The benefits of classic secondary batteries and RFBs are combined in HFBs. HFBs include the Zn-Ce and
Zn-Br systems. The anolyte is a Zn2+ ion-acid solution, and the electrodes are primarily carbon-plastic composites. Exxon
pioneered the Zn-Br hybrid flow battery in the early 1970s, and it is now being commercialized by a variety of companies. In
addition, 5 kW/20 kWh community energy storage devices are also being developed.

Electrochemical methods, involving what are generally called batteries, deserve the most attention. They can be used for a
very wide range of applications, from assisting the very large scale electrical grid down to tiny portable devices used for
many purposes. Battery-powered computers, phones, music players, etc. are everywhere, and one of the currently hot
topics involves the use of batteries in the propulsion of vehicles, hybrid autos, plug-in hybrids, and fully electric types.
Electrochemical energy storage involves the conversion, or transduction, of chemical energy into electrical energy, and
vice versa. In order to understand how this works, it is first necessary to consider the driving forces that cause
electrochemical transduction in electrochemical cells as well as the major types of reaction mechanisms that can occur

Major Types of Reaction Mechanisms in Electrochemical Cells

Two major types of reconstitution reactions that are relevant to electrochemical systems will be briefly mentioned here, formation
reactions and displacement reactions. This will be followed by an introduction to insertion reactions, which play a major role in
the operation of electrodes in a number of important modern battery systems.

It is important that the voltage characteristics of electrochemical energy storage systems match the requirements of the intended
application. It is not always best to have the highest possible cell voltage, for it can be wasteful if it is too high in some
applications.

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Self-Discharge

Another property that can be of importance in practical cells is called self-discharge. Evidence for this is a decrease in the
available capacity with time, even without energy being taken from the cell by the passage of current through the external circuit.
This is a serious practical problem in some systems, and is negligible in others

Cycling Behaviour

In many applications a battery is expected to maintain its major properties over many discharge–charge cycles. This can be a
serious practical challenge and is often given a lot of attention during the development and optimization of batteries.

Applications that involve many cycles of operation require that cells are designed and constructed such that the capacity loss per
cycle is extremely low. This typically means that compromises must be made in other properties. Super capacitors are expected to
be used over a very large number of cycles, and they typically have much lower values of specific energy than electrochemical
cells which are used for applications in which the amount of energy stored is paramount

General Equivalent Circuit of an Electrochemical Cell

It is often useful to devise electrical circuits whose electrical characteristics are analogous to the behaviour of important
phenomena in physical systems. By examination of the influence of changes in the parameters in such equivalent circuits, they can
be used as thinking tools to obtain useful insight into the significance of particular phenomena to the observable properties of
complex physical systems. By use of this approach, the techniques of circuit analysis that have been developed for use in various
branches of electrical engineering can be very helpful in the analysis of interdependent physical phenomena. A simple
electrochemical cell physical model as shown in fig 18.

Fig 18 Simplified physical model of electrochemical cell

Joule Heating Due to Self-Discharge in Electrochemical Cells

Electrochemical self-discharge causes heat generation, often called Joule heating, due to the transport of charged species through
the cell. The thermal power Pth caused by the passage of a current through a simple resistance R is given b

Pth = I2 R

If self-discharge results from the leakage of electrons through the electrolyte there must be both electronic and ionic current, and
they must have equal values. Thus the thermal power due to this type of self-discharge is:

Pth = Ii2 Zi + Ie2 Ze =Ie2 (Zi + Ze)

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What If Current Is Drawn from the Cell?

If current is drawn from the cell into an external circuit, the normal mode of operation when chemical energy is converted into
electrical energy, it flows through the ionic impedance, Zi. This results in an additional voltage drop of I out Zi, further reducing the
output voltage. If there were no electrochemical self-discharge, this can be written as

Eout = Eth ti - Iout Zi

A parameter that is often used to indicate the rate at which a battery is discharged is the so-called C-Rate. The discharge rate of a
battery is expressed as C/R, where R is the number of hours required to completely discharge its nominal capacity.

Electrical energy storage

Double layer capacitors (Super capacitors): Electrochemical double Layer Capacitors (DLC), otherwise called Super
capacitors, are energy storage devices which follow same basic equations as traditional capacitors but uses thinner dielectrics and
often porous carbon or higher surface area electrodes for accumulating large amount of charge carriers and capacitances (up to
5000F). As a result of the minimum distance between the plates(less than 1 nm) and larger surface area of activated carbons up to
2000 m2 per gram, provides capability for super capacitors to have extensive energy storage and capacitances. Fig , shows super
capacitor and its working principle. Benefits include, enormously high capacitance qualities, of the order of numerous thousand
farads, long cycle life, low inner resistance, quick charging and discharge, great reversibility, incredible low temperature
execution, no destructive substance, lower cost per cycle, high cycle efficiency (up to 95%), no moving parts, modular design,
perfect with existing source-voltage inverter, can give VAR(reactive power) and kW (active power) support. Giga Capacitor
Hyderabad Test Project (IL) in Hyderabad India, is Super capacitor based facility with rated power of 15,000kW.

Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES): Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) system is based on an
electrodynamics principle. The flow of direct current in a superconducting coil cryogenically cooled at very low temperature
creates magnetic field in which energy is stored. Ordinarily, the conductor is made of niobium-titanium, and the coolant can be
fluid helium at 4.2 K, or super liquid helium at 1.8 K. The SMES system with three noteworthy parts, is shown in Fig. 10. The
energy stored in the SMES coil can be figured by E = 0.5LI2, where L is the coil inductance and I is the current circulating in it.
The essential benefits of SMES are the swift response time: the demanded power is accessible promptly. Additionally, the
framework is described by its high general round- trip efficiency (85%–90%) and the powerful yield which can be supplied for a
brief timeframe. However, the over-all reliability depends immediately on the refrigeration framework. The significant issues
going up against the usage of SMES units are the high cost and ecological issues connected with solid magnetic field.

Emerging needs for EES: Electrical Energy Storage has to play three main roles. First, EES reduces electricity costs by storing
electricity obtained at off-peak times when its price is lower, for use at peak times instead of electricity bought then at higher
prices. Secondly, in order to improve the reliability of the power supply and their third role is to maintain and improve power
quality, frequency and voltage. Regarding emerging market needs, in on-grid areas, EES is expected to solve problems such as
excessive power fluctuation and undependable power supply which are associated with the use of large amounts of renewable
energy. In the off-grid domain, electric vehicles with batteries are the most promising technology to replace fossil fuels by
electricity from mostly renewable sources. There are two major emerging market needs for EES as a key technology: i) To utilize
more renewable energy and less fossil fuel and ii) The future Smart Grid

Transmission by cable: Electricity always needs cables for transmission, and supplying electricity to mobile applications and to
isolated areas presents difficulties. EES systems such as batteries can solve this problem with their mobile and charge/discharge
capabilities. In remote places without a power grid connection recharging an electric vehicle may present a challenge, but EES can
help realize an environmentally friendly transport system without using conventional combustion engines.

What is electrical energy used for?

Electricity is an essential part of modern life and important to the Indian economy. People use electricity for lighting, heating,
cooling, and refrigeration and for operating appliances, computers, electronics, machinery, and public transportation systems.

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EESS provide storage of electrical energy so that it can be used later. The approach is not new: EESS in the form of battery-
backed uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) have been used for many years. EESS are starting to be used for other purposes.
There are several reasons behind the increasing use of EESS:

1) They make renewable energy more effective by ensuring that the energy that is generated by renewable sources is
available when that energy source is not available. Eess can be used either to ensure that all energy generated can be used
locally in addition to the grid supply or to provide total independence from the public supply.

2) They make energy available during loss of the grid supply, enabling, for example:

3) Controlled shutdown' of data centres and other computer and control systems to prevent corruption of stored data that
would otherwise occur if the power was to be removed abruptly.

4) Electrical and electronic products and infrastructure to be used during power outages.

5) Hey allow for grid support services, including fast frequency response, demand and supply management, network
constraints, and power quality management. These services could be aggregated over a number of sites and are not
necessarily located on generation sites.

6) The falling cost of EESS, notably lithium ion batteries

Over view of the different type energy storage systems

Seminar Topic: Other alternative energy storage technologies, interested students can take a seminar on the topic mentioned here
on every Thursday 6th hour 02.30 PM to 03.10 PM. For register scan the code,

Google Classroom QR Code Seminar Registration Code

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