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FUNDAMENTAL OF WORLD GEOGRAPHY

Geography as a Discipline:
➢ Geography is the science that studies the lands, the features, the
inhabitants and the phenomena on the Earth.
➢ The word Geography was first used by Greek Scholar- Eratosthenes.
➢ Geography has been derived from two Greek words- Geo and Graphos
which jointly means the description of earth.
➢ Eratosthenes (ইৰাট'ষ্টেনিছ) was the first person who tried to calculate the
length of equator and the circumference of earth. Hence, he is considered
as the Father of Geography. He wrote a geographical treatise-
Geographica.
➢ Hecataeous (ষ্টেকেটিযাছ) is the author of book- Ges Periodos.
➢ Thales was the first scholar who tried to measure the earth.
➢ Aristotle was the first thinker who wrote about the shape of the Earth as
Spherical.
➢ Anaximander (এিানিকেণ্ডাৰ) was the first who draw World Map.
➢ Ptolemy (টকেনে) first presented India on the world map.
➢ The famous Indian geographer- Aryabhatta told that the Earth is a
spherical body and calculated its circumference as 24,835 miles, which is
very close to present calculation of 24, 901 miles.
➢ Sind Hind- written by Arab geographer Al-Khwarizmi.
➢ Kitab-al-Hind (Geography of India)- written by Al-Baruni in 1030 A.D.
➢ Humboldt- Father of Modern Geography.
➢ Ratzel- Father of Political Geography and Human Geography.
➢ Anthropogeology- is written by Ratzel.

Terms used in Geography:

Hydrology: It is the branch of geography that studies the movement,
distribution and quality of water on earth.

Geomorphology: It is the scientific study of landforms and processes that shape

them.
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Climatology: It is the study of climate, which is scientifically defined as weather

conditions averaged over a period of time.

Paedology: It is the study of soils in their natural environment.

Biogeography: It is the study of relationships of organisms with environment.

Topography: It is a field of geosciences and planetary science comprising the

study of surface shape and features of the Earth and other observable
astronomical objects including planets, moons, and asteroids.

Biosphere: The biosphere is a global ecosystem made up of living organisms

(biotic) and the non-living organisms (abiotic) that provide them with energy and
nutrients. The biosphere is a relatively thin layer of the Earth’s surface that
supports life, reaching from a few km into the atmosphere to deep-sea vents.

Cartogram: A "map" that is a diagram used to present statistical information. A

common cartogram shows the countries of the world with the size of the
country representing its population.

Cartography: The art and science of making maps.

Humidity: The amount of water vapour in the air.

Weather: The short-term atmospheric conditions.

Climate: The long-term trends in weather conditions for an area.

Demography: The study of population statistics and trends, such as births,

deaths, and disease.

Ecology: The study of the interrelationships between life forms and their
environment.

Island: It is any piece of sub-continental land that is surrounded by water from

all sides. Very small islands such as emergent land features on atolls can be
called islets, skerries, cays or keys. An island in a river or a lake island may be
called an eyot or ait, or a holm. A grouping of geographically or geologically
related islands is called an archipelago, e.g. the Philippines. A group of islands is
called ARCHIPELAGO. Indonesia is the largest Archipelago in the world.

Peninsula: A body of land surrounded by water on three sides is called a

peninsula. The word comes from the Latin paene insula, meaning “almost an
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island. The world’s largest peninsula is the Arabian Peninsula, or Arabia, is the
world's largest peninsula, covering an area of 3.2 million square km. It is located
in the Middle East and consists of 7 countries, including the UAE, Kuwait,
Bahrain, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Oman and Yemen. It is surrounded by the Red Sea
to the west, the Arabian Sea to the south, the Gulf of Aden to the south, the Gulf
of Oman to the east, and the Persian Gulf to the northeast.

Strait: It is a naturally formed, narrow, typically navigable waterway that

connects two larger bodies of water. It most commonly refers to a channel of
water that lies between two landmasses.

Isthmus (ইষ্টমাছ): It is a narrow strip of land connecting two large land areas
otherwise separated by the sea. Worlds two most famous Isthmus are the
Isthmus of Panama, connecting North and South America, and the Isthmus of
Suez, connecting Africa and Asia.

Gulf: It is a portion of the ocean that penetrates land. Gulfs vary greatly in size,
shape, and depth. They are generally larger and more deeply indented than
bays. Like bays, they often make excellent harbours. Many important trading
centres are located on gulfs.
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Bays: A bay is a small body of water or a broad inlet that is set off from a larger
body of water generally where the land curves inward. The San Francisco Bay,
off the coast in northern California, is a well-known bay in the United States.
Examples of other bays include the Bay of Pigs (Cuba), Hudson Bay (Canada),
Chesapeake Bay (Maryland and Virginia), and Bay of Bengal (near India).
Bays usually occur on oceans, lakes, and gulfs, and generally not on rivers except
when there is an artificially enlarged river mouth. An example of a bay at a river's
mouth is New York Bay, at the mouth of the Hudson River.

Cape: It is a high point of land that extends into a river, lake, or ocean. Some
capes, such as the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa, are parts of large
landmasses. Others, such as Cape Hatteras in the U.S. state of North Carolina,
are parts of islands. Peninsulas are similar to capes. Most geographers consider
capes to be smaller than peninsulas. Capes are narrow features that jut into a
body of water. Peninsulas can be large, and many are barely connected to the
mainland at all.

Relief: In geography, “relief” refers to the highest and lowest elevation points in
an area. Mountains and ridges are typically the highest elevation points, while
valleys and other low-lying areas are the lowest. On a relief map, relief is
depicted by hachures or shading, or, more accurately, by contours or by spot
elevations or both.

Caldera: Caldera is a large bowl-shaped volcanic depression more than one

kilometre in diameter and rimmed by in facing scarps. Calderas usually, if not
always, form by the collapse of the top of a volcanic cone or group of cones
because of removal of the support formerly furnished by an underlying body
of magma (molten rock).

El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO): Periodic warming of the ocean waters in

the eastern Pacific Ocean which affects global weather patterns.
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Focus: The place of origin of earthquake is called focus.

Epicentre: The point on the earth's surface directly above the hypocentre,
where the energy of an earthquake is first released.

Equator: Zero-degree latitude divides the earth into the Northern and Southern
hemispheres.

Equinox: The beginning of autumn and spring, the two days each year when the
sun is directly overhead at the equator.

Estuary: The wide end of a river when it meets the sea; salty tidal water mixes
with the freshwater of the river here.

Fault: A fracture in the rock where there has been movement and
displacement.

Geology: Science of the earth's crust, strata, the origin of rocks, etc. It looks
how earth is formed, its structure, composition, and the types of processes
acting on it.

Glacier: A large mass of ice that moves over the land, carving and eroding
surfaces as it moves.

Global Positioning System (GPS): A system of satellites and ground units

which enable a user to determine their absolute location.

Global Warming: The theory that the temperature of the atmosphere an

increase due to the increase in gasses such as carbon dioxide.

Globe: A spherical model of the earth's surface that includes a map of the earth;
also known as a terrestrial globe.

Greenhouse Effect: The analogy used to describe the ability of gasses in the
atmosphere to absorb heat from the earth's surface.

Hemisphere: Half of the earth's surface. There are four hemispheres,

Northern and Southern (divided by the equator) and the Eastern and Western
(divided by the Prime Meridian and 180°).
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Cyclone: A tropical storm that contains winds of at least 74 miles per hour
(119km/h). It is known as a cyclone or Tropical Cyclone in the northern Indian
Ocean and a typhoon in the western Pacific Ocean.

Other Names of Cyclone-

Hurricane - Caribbean Sea
Typhoon - China Sea
Taifu - Japan
Willy-Willy – Northern Australia
Tornado – USA
Baguio – Philippines

Hydrologic cycle: The circulation of water between the atmosphere, streams

and land, the ocean, and back to the atmosphere.

Hydrosphere: The water of the earth.

Prime meridian: Zero degrees longitude. Also known as the Greenwich

meridian because it was established at the Greenwich observatory near London.

International Date Line: An imaginary line near 180° longitude that exists to
separate the two simultaneous days that exist on the planet that the same time.

Jet stream: The high-altitude high-speed air current in the tropopause.

La Nina: A periodic cooling of the ocean waters in the Pacific Ocean which
affects global weather patterns.

Lagoon: A small, shallow body of water between a barrier island or a coral reef
and the mainland, also a small body of water surrounded by an atoll.

Latitude: Angular degrees based on the equator; the equator is 0° latitude and
the North Pole is 90° North (N) while the South Pole is 90° South (S).
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Lines of latitude, also called parallels, are imaginary lines that divide the Earth.
They run east to west, but measure your distance north or south. The equator is
the most well-known parallel. At 0 degrees latitude, it equally divides the Earth
into the Northern and Southern hemispheres. From the equator, latitude
increases as you travel north or south, reaching 90 degrees at each pole.

There are other named lines of latitude. They’re based on the sun’s position
during Earth’s orbit, and they help us understand climate, weather, and ocean
currents. The Tropic of Cancer, at 23.5 degrees north, and the Tropic of
Capricorn, at 23.5 degrees south, are the boundaries of what we consider the
tropics. The Arctic Circle and the Antarctic Circle are at 66.5 degrees north and
south, respectively. They mark the boundaries of the Arctic and Antarctic
regions.

Each degree of latitude covers about 111 km on the Earth’s surface. One degree
of latitude can be further divided into 60 minutes, and one minute can be further
divided into 60 seconds. A second of latitude covers only about 30.7 meters.
Unlike longitude lines, which get closer to each other at the poles, latitude lines
are parallel. No matter where you are on Earth, latitude lines are the same
distance apart.
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Longitude: Angular degrees based on the Prime Meridian (0°) at Greenwich,

London; degrees are east or west of Greenwich and meet in the Pacific Ocean at
180°. A line of longitude is called Meridian.

Lines of longitude, also called meridians, are imaginary lines that divide the
Earth. They run north to south from pole to pole, but they measure the distance
east or west.

The prime meridian, which runs through Greenwich, England, has a longitude of
0 degrees. It divides the Earth into the eastern and western hemispheres. The
Antemeridian is on the opposite side of the Earth, at 180 degrees longitude.
Though the antemeridian is the basis for the international date line, actual date
and time zone boundaries are dependent on local laws. The international date
line zigzags around borders near the antemeridian.

Like latitude, longitude is measured in degrees, minutes, and seconds. Although

latitude lines are always equally spaced, longitude lines are furthest from each
other at the equator and meet at the poles. At the equator, longitude lines are
the same distance apart as latitude lines — one degree covers about 111 km (69
miles). But, by 60 degrees north or south, that distance is down to 56 km (35
miles). By 90 degrees north or south (at the poles), it reaches zero.
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Magma: Molten rock that lies beneath the surface of the earth; once exposed,
magma becomes lava. Magma that reaches the earth's surface through a
volcanic vent or fissure is called lava.

Megalopolis: Several adjacent metropolitan areas form a huge urban area.

Conurbation.

Mesa: A large flat-topped but steep-sided landform; they shrink to become

buttes.

Meteorology: The scientific study of the atmosphere.

Monsoon: A monsoon is a seasonal change in the direction of the prevailing,

or strongest, winds of a region. Monsoons cause wet
and dry seasons throughout much of the tropics. Monsoons are most often
associated with the Indian Ocean.

Monsoons always blow from cold to warm regions. The summer monsoon and
the winter monsoon determine the climate for most of India and Southeast Asia.

Pangaea: A huge landmass consisting of almost all the continental land on the
earth which then divided and slowly became the continents we know today.

Plate tectonics: The surface of the earth is composed of many large plates
which slowly move around the planet, meeting and diverging, creating a variety
of earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountains at their margins.

Precipitation Any form of water that falls from the atmosphere to the surface
of the earth (e.g. rain, snow, sleet, and hail).

Primate city: A city which is greater than two times the next largest city in a
nation (or contains over one-third of a nation's population). Usually very
expressive of the national culture and often the capital city.

Scale: The relationship between distance on a map and on the earth's surface.

Sustainable development: Development that does not exploit resources

more rapidly than the renewal of those resources.

Morphology: The shape of a state or nation.

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Physical geography: The branch of geography dealing with the natural

features of the earth.

Physical Map: Physical maps show the landforms that are present in the area
or region that is pictured on the map. Physical features such as mountains,
oceans, rivers, deserts, islands, and seas will be marked on the map, often with
colours and shaded relief to show elevation change.

Political Map: A political map is a type of map that represents political

divisions, or human-created boundaries, of the world, continents and
major geographic regions. Political features are characteristics such as country
borders, roads, population centres and landform boundaries.

Topographic Map: A detailed, large scale contour map showing human and
physical features.

Universe
▪ The universe is commonly defined as the totality of everything that exists
including all physical matter and energy, the planets, galaxies and the
contents of intergalactic space.
▪ The study of universe is known as Cosmology.

Galaxy
▪ A galaxy is a vast system of billions of stars which also contains a large
number of gas clouds mainly of hydrogen gas and dust Isolated in space
from similar systems.
▪ There are about 100 billion galaxies in the universe and each galaxy has,
on an average, hundred billion of stars.
▪ The Milky Way Galaxy is the home of the earth and our solar system It is
spiral in shape. Milky Way Galaxy was formed five billion years after the
Big Bang Theory given by Georges Lemaitre.
▪ Latest known Galaxy is the Dwarf Galaxy.
▪ The origin of the universe is explained by the Big Bang Theory, proposed
by Georges Lemaitre.
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▪ Andromeda is our nearest galaxy.

STAR
▪ Clumps of dust and gas in a nebula come together due to gravity and
form stars.
▪ Starts are made of hot burning gases. The emit light of their own and
they are very large and very hot.
▪ According to NASA, light takes about 4.35 years to reach us from Alpha
Centauri and 4.25 years from the nearest Star Proxima Centauri.

The Solar System

▪ The solar system consists of the sun, the eight planets and their satellites
(or moons) and thousands of other smaller heavenly bodies such as
asteroids, comets and meteors.
▪ The sun is at the centre of the solar system and all these bodies are
revolving around it. The gravitational pull of the sun keeps all the planets
and other objects revolving around it.
▪ Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars are called terrestrial planets and Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus, Neptune are called gaseous planets.

Members of the Solar System

The Sun:
▪ The sun is at the centre of the solar system.
▪ It is the nearest star to the Earth.
▪ Hydrogen and Helium are the main gases present in the sun.
▪ Shining surface of the sun is called Photosphere, it appears like disk,
radiates energy and acts as a source of energy.
▪ The sun is about 150 million km away from the earth.
▪ Light takes about 8.5 minutes to reach the earth from the sun.

The Planets:
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▪ There are opaque bodies which continuously revolve around the sun and
are lighted by the sun.
▪ On the basis of the new definition of planet given by the International
Astronomical Union (IAU) on August 24, 2006 declared that Pluto would
no longer remain a planet.
▪ A ninth planet has been recently discovered by NASA named as Carla.
▪ The sequence of planets according to their distance from the sun are
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupitar, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
▪ The sequence of planets according to their size are from larger to smaller
are Jupitar, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Earth, Venus, Mars and Mercury.

1. Mercury:
▪ Mercury is the closest planet to the sun.
▪ It is extremely hot and have magnetic field.
▪ It is the smallest and lightest of all the planets and have no moon.
▪ It has no water.
2. Venus:
▪ Venus is the second planet in distance from the sun.
▪ Venus is called- Morning Star and Evening Star.
▪ Venus is like the Earth in size and mass, and hence also known as
Earth’s Twin.
▪ It is the hottest planet of our solar system.
▪ It has no water and moons.

3. Earth:
▪ Earth is the largest planet among the inner planets and fifth overall.
1 1
▪ The Earth is 23 degree tilted on its axis and thus make 66 degree
2 2
0
angle. The earth rotates by 1 in 4 minutes.
▪ It takes 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4.091 seconds to rotate on its
axis.
▪ It takes 365 days, 5 hours and 48 minutes to revolve around the
sun.
▪ The earth is known as the water planet or blue planet due to
presence of huge water.
▪ The maximum distance between the Earth and the Sun is called
Aphelion. It happens on 4th July, and the distance is 152 million km.
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▪ The minimum distance between the Earth and the Sun is called
Perihelion. It happens on 3rd January and the distance is 147 million
km.
▪ Equinoxes:
These are days where days and nights are equal. Under this
situation, the sun is vertically overhead at the equator. It happens
two times in a year.
o 21st March – Vertical Equinox.
o 23rd September - Autumn Equinox.
▪ Summer Solstice:
o After the March Equinox the sun appears to move northward
and is vertically overheated at the topic of cancer on 21st
June. This is known as summer solstice.
o On 21st June, the Northern Hemisphere will have its longest
day and shortest night, whereas on the same day the
Southern Hemisphere will have shortest day and longest
night.
▪ Winter Solstice:
o On 22nd December, the sun is over at the Tropic of Capricorn.
This is known as winter solstice.
o On 22nd December, the Southern Hemisphere will have its
longest day and shortest night, whereas on the same day the
Northern Hemisphere will have shortest day and longest
night.
▪ Moon:
o The moon is the only satellite of the Earth.
o The maximum distance (Apogee) of the Moon from the Earth
is 4,06,000 km; whereas the minimum distance (Perigee) is
3,64,000 km; and approximate distance is 3,84,400 km.
o Only 59% of the total surface of the moon is visible from the
Earth.
o It has no atmosphere and twilight and no sound.
o The light from the moon takes 1.3 seconds to the earth.
o The size of the moon is one-fourth of the earth by mass.
o The gravitational force of the moon is one-sixth of the earth
of the earth.
o The study of Moon is called – Selenology.
▪ Super Moon:
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Super Moons happens when a full Moon is closest to the Earth,

appearing bibber and brighter than normal. Hence called supper
moon.
▪ Blue Moon:
In a calendar month if there are two full moons then the second
moon is called as Blue Moon. When Blue Moon appears in two or
more months in a year then it is called Blue Moon Year.
▪ Blood Moon:
A Blood Moon is the name given for a view of the Moon during a
total lunar eclipse. Because when the light passes the atmosphere
of the Earth, the red light from the sun is reflected on the moon
and it appears as reddish in colour and hence the name.
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4. Mars:
▪ Iron-rich red soil and pink sky of Mars give it the name.
▪ Mars has a cold desert.
▪ It is half the size of Earth. Like earth, it has seasons, polar caps,
volcanoes, canyons, and weather. It has an atmosphere of carbon
dioxide, nitrogen, and argon.
▪ Mars has two moons, viz., Phobos and Deimos.
▪ Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM), unmanned mission to Mars that
is India’s first interplanetary spacecraft. The Indian Space Research
Organisation (ISRO) launched the Mars Orbiter Mission on
November 5, 2013, using its Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV)
from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre on Sriharikota Island, Andhra
Pradesh state.
5. Jupitar:
▪ Jupitar is the largest planet of the solar system.
▪ It is also known as winter planet as its average temperature is –
1480C.
▪ It has 93 satellites and Ganymede (yellow) is the largest satellite of
Jupiter. It is also the largest satellite of the solar system. Its other
important moons are Europa and Callisto.
6. Saturn:
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▪ Saturn is the second largest satellite of the solar system.

▪ Saturn has bright concentric rings which are made of ice and ice-
covered dust particles that revolve around it.
▪ It has 83 satellite and Titan is the largest satellite or moon of Saturn.
7. Uranus:
▪ Uranus is the third largest planet of the solar system.
▪ This planet appears as greenish in colour due to presence of
Methane in its atmosphere.
▪ Uranus rotates from east to west on its axis, which is opposite to
the other planets except Venus.
▪ It has 27 satellites. Miranda and Ariel are its important satellites.
8. Neptune:
▪ Neptune is the 8th (farthest) planet of the Solar System.
▪ Neptune is very similar to Uranus and is considered as its twin.
▪ It has 14 satellites. Triton and Nereid are its important satellites.
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Solar and Luner Eclipse

Solar Eclipse
Solar Eclipse occurs when the moon comes in between the sun and the earth.
As a result, the moon blocks the light of the sun from reaching the earth’s
surface and casts a shadow on it. This occurs in a new moon phase.

Depending on the distance of the moon from the earth during the event,
different types of solar concealment can be observed. They can be categorized
as:

• Partial: When the moon does not align completely with the sun, and so
only a portion of the sunlight is blocked from reaching the earth.
• Annular: When the moon covers the sun, but the sun can be seen around
the edges of the moon, giving an impression that the sun is a bright ring
surrounding the dark disc of the moon.
• Total: When the sun is completely covered by the moon. The sky becomes
so dark that it appears to be night. Only a small area of the earth can
witness it.

Lunar Eclipse
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Luner Eclipse occurs when the earth comes in between the sun and the moon.
As a result, the earth blocks the light of the sun from reaching the moon’s
surface and casts its shadow on the moon. It occurs on a full moon day.

Depending on how the sun, the moon, and the earth line up, lunar eclipse too
can be categorized as:

• Partial: When only a part of the moon moves into the shadow of the
earth.
• Total: When the earth passes directly in front of the moon and casts its
shadow on the full moon.

It is advised that one should not look at the sun directly during the solar eclipse
as it can permanently damage the eyes. However, it is safe to view the lunar
eclipse directly.

Composition of Atmosphere
The composition of Atmosphere is said to be a mixture of different gases. It
envelops around the Earth. 99% of total mas of atmosphere is confined to
highest of 32 km from the Earth’s surface.
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• The presence of oxygen becomes negligible at the height of 120 km from

the surface of earth with regards to the composition of atmosphere.
• Carbon dioxide and water vapour occur only up to 90 km.
• Carbon dioxide is meteorically very important as it is transparent to
incoming solar radiation but opaque to outgoing terrestrial radiation. It is
also responsible for greenhouse effect.
• Ozone gas: 10-50 km above earth surface and acts as filter, absorbing
ultraviolet rays from the sun. Ozone prevents the rays from reaching the
surface of earth.
• Water vapour is variable gas, decreases with altitude.
• It also decreases from equator towards the poles.
• Dust particles: are in higher concentration in subtropical and temperate
regions due to dry winds in comparison to equatorial and polar regions.
• Dust particles act as a hygroscopic nucleus over which water vapour of
atmosphere condenses to produce clouds.

Structure of Atmosphere:
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There are five layers in the structure of atmosphere depending upon

temperature.

I. Troposphere:

• It is the lowermost layer.

• 13 km height average with 8 km at poles and 18 km at equator (lesser at
poles and greater at equator).
• The thickness is 18 km at equator because heat is transported to great
heights by strong convectional currents.
• This layer has adult particles and water vapour.
• Climate and weather changes occur here.
• Temperature decreases at rate of 1 degree Celsius for every 165 m of
height.
• Zone separating troposphere from stratosphere is called tropopause.
• Temperature at tropopause is -80 degrees Celsius over equator and -45
degrees Celsius over the poles. This remains constant through the year.
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• This layer accounts for entire water vapour, or dust particles and most of
the carbon dioxide. Hence, all weather phenomena such as condensation,
precipitation and storms etc, occur in the troposphere only.

II. Stratosphere

• It is found above the troposphere.

• extends up to 50 km of height.
• In this layer the temperature increases with increase in height. This
phenomenon is known as temperature inversion.
• Has ozone layer – absorbs ultraviolet radiation and shields life on earth
from harmful energy.
• The part of the stratosphere in which there is a concentration of ozone is
often called ozonosphere.
• This layer is free from dust particles and also from atmospheric turbulence
and hence considered ideal for flying of jet aircrafts.

III. Mesosphere:

• Above stratosphere
• reaches till 80 km height.
• Temperature decreases with altitude here, by 80 km it reaches minus
hundred degrees Celsius. It is considered the coldest layer of the
atmosphere.
• The upper limit is called mesopause.

IV. Ionosphere:

• 80 to 400 km above mesopause.

• Ionosphere consists of electrically charged particles known as ions.
• Radio waves which are transmitted from the earth are reflected back by
this layer which make radio communication possible.
• Temperature here increases with height.
• The zone between 85 kilometres and 600 metres above the surface is
called Thermosphere. In this layer, temperature increases with increasing
altitude.

V. Exosphere:

• It is the outermost layer.

• This zone of the atmosphere is about 10,000 km thick.
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• The upper limit of the exosphere is uncertain as this layer acts as a

transitional layer between the Earth’s atmosphere and the outer space.
The outer part of the exosphere is called Magnetosphere.

Earth’s Interior
➢ The interior of the earth is divided into three parts-
o Crust
o Mantle
o Core
➢ The outermost layer is called crust and it is the least dense and its
thickness varies 8 to 40 km.
➢ The intermediate layer of the earth is mantle. It is about 2900 km in
thickness and composed of minerals in a semi-solid state.
➢ The inner most layer of the earth is called core. This layer is also known
as NiFe (Nickel and Iron) as this layer contain large amount of Iron and
Nickel.

Rocks
Earth’s crust is composed of rocks. It’s an aggregate of one or more minerals.
Rocks do not have definite composition of mineral constituents. However,
feldspar and quartz are the most common minerals found in rocks. Petrology is
science of rocks. It is a branch of geology. A petrologist studies rocks in all
aspects – composition, texture, structure, origin, occurrence, alternation and
relationship with other rocks.

Based on their mode of formation, there are three different types of rocks:

1. Igneous rocks – solidifies from magma and lava.

2. Sedimentary rocks – the result of deposition of fragments of rocks by
exogenous processes.
3. Metamorphic rocks – formed out of existing rocks undergoing
recrystallization.

Igneous rocks:
• Formed from magma and lava from interior of earth.
• These are primary rocks.
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• Igneous rocks are classified based on texture. Texture depends upon size
and arrangement of grains or other physical conditions of the materials.
• If the molten material or magma is cooled slowly at great depths, mineral
grains may be very large.
• Sudden cooling (at the surface) results in small and smooth grains.
• Intermediate conditions for cooling of magma would result in
intermediate sizes of grains.
• Granite, gabbro, pegmatite, basalt, volcanic breccia, and tuff are some
examples.

Sedimentary rocks:
• All rocks of earth are exposed to actions of denudational agents and are
broken in various sizes of fragments. Such fragments are transported by
different exogenous agencies and deposited.
• These deposits through compaction turn into rocks. This process is called
“Lithification “. This is the process of formation of sedimentary rocks.
• Some retain their characteristics even after Lithification like sandstone,
shale, etc. Therefore, we can see various layers of different thickness in
these sedimentary rocks.
• Depending on mode of formation, classified into following three –

1. Mechanically formed – Sandstone, conglomerate, limestone, shale, loess.

2. Organically formed – Geyserite, chalk, limestone, coal, etc.
3. Chemically formed – Chert, limestone, halite, potash, etc.

Metamorphic rocks:
• The word metamorphic means ‘change of form’. these rocks form under
action of Pressure, Volume, temperature changes.
• This occurs when rocks are forced down to lower levels by tectonic
processes, or when molten magma rising through crust comes in contact
with crustal rocks, or when underlying rocks are subjected to great
pressure by overlying rocks.
• It is a process by which already consolidated and compacted rocks
undergo recrystallisation and reorganization of materials within original
rocks.
• Dynamic metamorphism: mechanical disruption due to breaking without
any appreciable chemical changes.
• Thermal metamorphism: chemical alteration and recrystallisation of
rocks. It is of two types: A) Contact – rocks come in contact with hot
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intruding magma and rocks recrystallize under high temperature. ;

B) Regional – recrystallization of rocks due to deformation caused by
tectonic shearing together with high temperature or pressure or both.
• Foliation or lineatio: During recrystallisation, minerals might get arranged
in layers or lines, this is termed as foliation.
• Banding: When minerals and materials of different groups are arranged
into alternating thin to thick layers appearing in light and dark shades, they
are called structures with banding, and rocks displaying banding are
obviously called banded rocks.
• Metamorphic rocks are divided in to two major groups – foliated rocks and
non-foliated rocks.
• Examples of metamorphic rocks are – gynecoid, granite, syenite, slate,
schist, marble, quartzite.

Earthquake
➢ Earthquake happens due to the vibration on the Earth’s surface caused by
the catastrophic endogenetic forces.
➢ The magnitude or intensity of energy released by an earthquake is
measured by Richter Scale, where as the damage caused is measured by
modified Mercalli Intensity Scale.
➢ The place of origin of earthquake is called focus.
➢ The place on the ground surface, that is perpendicular to the focus or
hypocentre is called Epicentre.
➢ The branch of geology that delas with the study of Earthquake-
Seismology.

Continents of the World:

There are 7 continents of the world are:
1. Asia
2. Europe
3. Africa
4. North America
5. South America
6. Australia
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7. Antarctica

Continent – Asia
• Asia is not only the largest continent by population, but also the largest
continent by size.
• Although Asia is the largest continent by size and population, the African
continent has more countries than Asia.
• Asia has some of the world’s largest countries in the world.
• China is the largest country in Asia.
• India is the second largest country in Asia and the world’s seventh
largest country.
• The world’s two largest countries by population are China and India.
Both these countries are located in Asia.

Continent – Africa
• The continent of Africa has 54 countries.
• Africa is the second-largest continent in the world.,
• Africa is bounded by the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea, the Indian
Ocean, and the Atlantic Ocean.
• The largest country by land area in Africa is Algeria and the second
largest country in Africa is the Democratic Republic of Congo.
• Nigeria is the most populous country of Africa.
• The least populous and smallest country of Africa is Seychelles.

Continent – Europe
• Europe is bordered by Asia to its East, Mediterranean Sea to its South,
Arctic Ocean to its north, and Atlantic Ocean to its west.
• The European Union (EU) is a political and economic union of 27
member states that are located primarily in Europe.

Continent – South America

• South America is predominantly in the Southern hemisphere.
• There are 12 sovereign countries in South America.
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• Brazil is the largest country in South America.

• South America is connected to North America through the Isthmus of
Panama.

Continent – Antarctica
• The southernmost continent on earth is Antarctica.
• Earth’s south pole is located in Antarctica.
• Antarctica is twice the size of the Australian continent.
• The 5th largest continent is Antarctica.
• Antarctica is mainly a polar desert.
• Around 30 countries govern Antarctica, all of which are signatories of
the Antarctic Treaty System of 1959.
• As per the terms of the treaty, it is prohibited to dispose of nuclear
wastes, conduct nuclear explosions, mining, and military activities.
• There will be around 5000 research scientists during the summer
months in Antarctica.

Continent – Australia
• Australia is the largest country in the Oceania region.
• Australia is the world’s sixth largest country.
• Australia’s economy is highly developed.
• It has diverse landscapes such as mountain ranges, tropical rainforests,
and deserts.

Oceans of the World

There are 5 Oceans and they are as per their size- Pacific Ocean, Atlantic
Ocean, Indian Ocean, Antarctic Ocean and Arctic Ocean.

1. Pacific Ocean
2. Atlantic Ocean
3. Indian Ocean
4. Antarctic Ocean
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5. Arctic Ocean

Pacific Ocean
▪ The largest and deepest of the earth’s oceans is the Pacific Ocean. The
deepest point in the World is the Mariana trench, which is located in the
▪ Pacific Ocean.
▪ The Pacific Ocean covers around 46% of the Earth’s water surface.
▪ The surface area of the Pacific Ocean is larger than the total land surface
of the earth.

Atlantic Ocean
▪ The Atlantic Ocean is the World’s second largest ocean.
▪ The Atlantic Ocean covers around 29% of earth’s water surface area.

Indian Ocean

▪ The Indian Ocean is the third largest ocean.

▪ The Indian Ocean constitutes around 20% of the earth’s water surface.
▪ The Indian Ocean is bounded by Australia to its East, Africa to the West,
and Asia to the North.
▪ To the south of the Indian Ocean is the Antarctic Ocean.

Antarctic Ocean
▪ It is the world’s second smallest ocean

Artic Ocean:
▪ It is the smallest ocean of the world.
▪ It has also been described as an estuary of the Atlantic Ocean. It is also
seen as the northernmost part of the all-encompassing World Ocean.

▪ The Arctic Ocean includes the North Pole region in the middle of
the Northern Hemisphere and extends south to about 60°N.
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Cyclones
➢ Cyclones are mainly of two types- Tropical Cyclone and Temperate
cyclone.
➢ Name of Cyclones in Different Regions of the World-
Name of Cyclone Region where it occurs
Typhoons South China Sea
Tropical Cyclones Indian Ocean
Hurricanes Caribbean Sea
Tornadoes USA
Willy Willies Northern Australia

Types of Map Lines

1. Isopleth
Isopleth on a contour map connects the places having the same value of some
measurable quantity of geographical or meteorological phenomena. For
example, the population density of an area can be calculated by the quotient of
population in the area and surface area of a region.

2. Isohyet
Isohyet indicates the points of equal rainfall of an area in the given time.

3. Isobar
Isobars on contour maps indicates the point of equal or constant atmospheric
pressure for a given period.

4. Isobath
It is a type of imaginary contour lines on a map of chart that connects all the
points having same depth below water surface like ocean, sea and lake.
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5. Isohaline
It is a type of contour lines on a map which connect the point of equal salinity in
the water body.

6. Isotherm
It is a type of contour lines on a map of chart with connects the point of equal
temperature of a given area.

Further they are divided into two types.

1. Isocheim: It is a line of equal mean winter temperature.

2. Isothere: It is a line of equal means summer temperature.
An isotherm at 0 degree is called freezing level.

7. Isohel
It is a type of contour lines on a map that connects the places of equal duration
of sunshine for a given period.

8. Isohume
It is a type of contour lines on a map that connects all the points of equal relative
humidity of a specific area.

9. Isoneph
It’s a line that connects all points of equal amount of cloud cover.

10. Isopectic
Isopectic is imaginary lines on a contour map or chart that connects all the points
at which the ice starts to form at the same time.

11. Isotach
It’s a line that connects all points of equal wind speed.
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12. Isogeotherm
Isogeotherm on contour map connects all the points within the earth having the
same mean temperature.

Important Gulfs of the World

Gulf of Mexico
➢ It is the largest gulf in the world.
➢ It is bordered by the United States, Mexico, and the island nation
of Cuba.
➢ It has a coastline of about 5,000 km.

Gulf of Oman
➢ Gulf of Oman connects the Arabian Sea with the Strait of Hormuz, which
then runs to the Persian Gulf.
➢ The gulf borders Pakistan and Iran on the north, Oman on the south,
and the United Arab Emirates on the west.

Gulf of Aden
➢ Gulf of Aden is located in the Arabian Sea between Yemen and Somalia.
➢ In the north-west, it connects with the Red Sea through the Bab-el-
Mandeb strait.
➢ The waterway is part of the important Suez canal shipping route
between the Mediterranean Sea and the Arabian Sea in the Indian
Ocean.
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Persian Gulf

➢ It is located in Western Asia between Iran and the Arabian Peninsula.

➢ The Persian Gulf is an extension of the Indian Ocean (Gulf of Oman)

through the Strait of Hormuz.

➢ Countries with a coastline on the Persian Gulf are (clockwise, from the
north): Iran, Oman, United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Qatar,
Bahrain, Kuwait, and Iraq.

Gulf of Carpentaria
➢ It is a large, shallow sea enclosed on three sides by
northern Australia and bounded on the north by the Arafura Sea. The
Arafura Sea is the body of water that lies between Australia and New
Guinea.

Gulf of Bothnia
➢ the Gulf of Bothnia is part of the Baltic
Sea between Sweden and Finland.
➢ It is the northernmost arm of the Baltic Sea.

Gulf of Riga

➢ the Gulf of Riga is a bay of the Baltic Sea between Latvia and Estonia.

➢ Gulf of Riga and the Baltic Sea is connected by the Irbe Strait.

Gulf of Alaska
➢ The Gulf of Alaska is an arm of the Pacific Ocean.
➢ The entire shoreline of the Gulf is a rugged combination of forest,
mountain, and a number of tidewater glaciers.
➢ Alaska’s largest glaciers, the Malaspina Glacier and Bering Glacier spill
out onto the coastal plain along the Gulf of Alaska.
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Gulf of Finland
➢ Gulf of Finland is located between the southern coast of Finland and the
northern coast of Estonia in the Baltic Sea.
➢ It extends all the way to Saint Petersburg in Russia, where the river Neva
drains into it. The eastern parts of the Gulf of Finland belong to Russia
➢ The area of the gulf is 30,000 km2. The length from the Hanko Peninsula
to Saint Petersburg is 400 km.

Gulf of Mannar

➢ Gulf of Mannar lies between the southeastern tip of India and the west
coast of Sri Lanka.

➢ It is a large shallow bay forming part of the Laccadive Sea in the Indian
Ocean.

➢ Adam’s Bridge, also called Ramsethu, which includes Mannar Island,

separates the Gulf of Mannar from Palk Bay, which lies to the north
between India and Sri Lanka.

➢ In 1986, a group of 21 islets lying off the Tamil Nadu coast between
Thoothukudi and Dhanushkodi was declared the Gulf of Mannar Marine
National Park. The park and its 10 km buffer zone were declared
a Biosphere Reserve in 1989.

Gulf of Martaban
➢ The Gulf of Martaban or the Gulf of Mottama is an arm of
the Andaman Sea in the southern part of Burma. The gulf is named after
the port city of Mottama (formerly known as Martaban).

Gulf of Panama
➢ Gulf of Panama is a gulf in the Pacific Ocean, near the southern coast of
Panama.
➢ It has a maximum width of 250 km, a maximum depth of 220 m, and a
size of 2,400 km2.
➢ The Panama Canal connects the Gulf of Panama with the Caribbean
Sea and the Atlantic Ocean.
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Gulf of Suez
➢ The Gulf of Suez is a gulf at the northern end of the Red Sea, to
the west of the Sinai Peninsula. Situated to the east of the Sinai
Peninsula is the smaller Gulf of Aqaba.

Gulf of Thailand
➢ Gulf of Thailand was formerly known as the Gulf of Siam.
➢ The Gulf of Thailand is bordered by Cambodia, Thailand, and Vietnam.
➢ The northern tip of the gulf is the Bay of Bangkok at the mouth of
the Chao Phraya River.
➢ The gulf covers roughly 320,000 km2.

Gulf of Gabes
➢ Gulf of Gabes is a gulf on Tunisia’s east coast in the Mediterranean Sea,
off North Africa.
➢ The gulf borders Libya and Tunisia.

Gulf of Saint Lawrence

➢ Gulf of Saint Lawrence is the world’s largest estuary.
➢ The gulf is the outlet of the North American Great Lakes via the Saint
Lawrence River into the Atlantic Ocean.
➢ The Gulf of Saint Lawrence is bounded on the north by the Labrador
Peninsula and Quebec, to the east by Newfoundland Island, to the south
by the Nova Scotia peninsula and Cape Breton Island, and to the west by
the Gaspe Peninsula, New Brunswick, and Quebec.

Gulf of Aqaba
➢ The Gulf of Aqaba or Gulf of Eilat is a large gulf located at the northern
tip of the Red Sea, east of the Sinai Peninsula and west of the Arabian
mainland.
➢ Its coastline is divided between four countries: Egypt, Israel, Jordan,
and Saudi Arabia.
➢ The Gulf of Aqaba is one of the world’s premier sites for diving.

Amundsen Gulf
➢ Amundsen Gulf is a gulf located in Canadian Northwest Territories,
between Banks Island and Victoria Island and the mainland.
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➢ The gulf is 400 km in length.

➢ The Amundsen Gulf was explored by Norwegian explorer Roald
Amundsen.

Gulf of Tonkin
➢ The Gulf of Tonkin is a gulf at the northwestern portion of the South
China Sea, located off the coasts of Tonkin and South China.
➢ The gulf receives the Red River, and its main ports include Ben Thuy and
Haiphong in northern Vietnam and Beihai (Pakhoi) in China.

Gulf of Kutch
➢ It is situated on the coast of the state of Gujrat near the Kutch region. It
is an inlet into the Arabian Sea from the west coast of India. The
maximum depth of the Gulf of Kutch is 402 ft and its width is around 150
to 160 Kms. The First Coral garden will be set up in the Gulf of Kutch.

Gulf of Khambhat
➢ This is located south of the Gulf of Kutch and is also an extension of the
Arabian sea along the western coast of India around the state of Gujrat’s
Kathiawar region. India’s major east-flowing rivers – Narmada and Tapti
flow into the Gulf of Khambhat. It also is known as the Gulf of Cambay.

Gulf of Guinea
➢ The Gulf of Guinea is the north-easternmost part of the tropical Atlantic
Ocean.
➢ The intersection of the Equator and Prime Meridian (zero degrees
latitude and longitude) is in this gulf.
➢ Among the many rivers that drain into the Gulf of Guinea are the Niger
and the Volta.

Important International Borders

Hindenburg Line: It is the boundary that separates Germany and Poland.
During the First World War, the Germans retreated to this line. The
Hindenburg Line is one of the most important international borders.
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Marginal Line: It is a 320 km line on the Russia-Finland border. It is a

fortification line drawn up by General Mannerheim.

Medicine Line: This line forms the border between the United States and
Canada.

Oder-Neisse Line: This line forms the border between Poland and Germany. It
is drawn along the Oder and Neisse rivers, hence its name. This important
international border was created at the Poland Conference in 1945.

Siegfried Line: Originally, it was a World War I line comprising defensive forts
and tank defences. Germany set up this defensive boundary line in northern
France during World War I.

38th Parallel: This line separates North Korea and South Korea. This parallel of
latitude is one of the most hotly contested international borders.

40th Parallel North: It forms the original northern boundary of the territory of
the British Colony of Maryland.

49th Parallel: This line forms the boundary between the United States and
Canada.

Inter-Entity Boundary Line: This particular line undertook the division of

Bosnia and Herzegovina into two entities. One of these entities is Republika
Srpska. The other entity is the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

International Boundaries of India

Just like important boundary lines of the world, India too has its borders that
define its national territory. India shares land borders with the following seven
countries:

• Bhutan

• Bangladesh

• China

• Afghanistan
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• Myanmar

• Nepal

• Pakistan

Let us take a look at the International boundaries of India:

McMahon Line: The naming of this line is after Sir Arthur Henry McMahon,
who was a British Indian Army officer Lieutenant Colonel. It separates Tibet
and northeast India.

Radcliffe Line: Radcliffe Line made the division of British India into India and
Pakistan. It is named after Sir Cyril Radcliffe, who was the architect of this
particular boundary. This boundary was drawn between the following:
o West Pakistan (now Pakistan) and India

o India and East Pakistan (now Bangladesh)

Durand Line: The demarcation of this boundary line took place by Sir Mortimer
Durand. This line is between the nations of India and Afghanistan. At the time
of its creation, it separated British India and Afghanistan. The Afghanistan
border shares a short section with Jammu and Kashmir, the northernmost
Indian state.

Line of Actual Control (LAC): This line represents the demarcation line
between India and China. It separated the India-controlled territory in Jammu
and Kashmir from the China-controlled territory. During the 1962 war, China
captured the Aksai Chin area. In 1963, China declared a ceasefire. LAC
represents this ceasefire line.

Line of Control (LOC): This is a line between India and Pakistan that is military
controlled. Originally known as the Ceasefire Line in Jammu and Kashmir, it
was renamed LOC during the 1972 Shimla Agreement. It is not recognised as
an international boundary.

Additional Facts and Topics:

➢ The brightest star outside the solar system- Sirius. It is also called Dog Star.
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➢ The closest star to our solar system- Proxima Centauri (4.2 light years
away) followed by Alpha Centauri (4.3 light years away).
➢ Light year is a unit of distance and it is the distance that light can travel in
one year. 1 light year = 9.46x1012 km approx.
➢ Indian Standard Time (IST):
The Indian Government has accepted the Meridian of 82.5 degree East for
Indian Standard Time (IST) which is five hours 30 minutes ahead of the
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). India Standard Time (IST) is 5:30 hours
ahead of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).
➢ The Earth is divided in 24 longitudinal zones, each being 15 degree or 1
hour apart in time (360 degree = 24 hours 𝑜𝑟 1 degree = 15 minutes).
➢ Tornado:
Tornadoes are very strong tropical cyclones of smaller size. In the
Mississippi Valley (USA) tornadoes are called Twisters.
➢ Jet Stream:
The strong and rapidly moving circumpolar Westerly air circulation in a
narrow belt of a few hundred kms width in the upper limit of troposphere
is called Jet Streams.
➢ Humidity:
Humidity, the amount of water vapour in the air. It is the most variable
characteristic of the atmosphere and constitutes a major factor
in climate and weather. Humidity is measured by an instrument called
Hygrometer. Another instrument that also measures Humidity is Siling
Psychrometer.