Introduction

Suitability of soil for any use depends on its

RESPONSE to that use → usually on ONE or
ENGINEERING MORE ENGG PROPS

PROPERTIES OF SOILS ⇒ Performance of completed engg works

depends on CORRECT ASSESSMENT of
these props

Introduction.....
.....((2) Compressibility
Two engg props especially important to Construction involves:
many engg works/situations....:
¾ Use of soil to make structure
¾ Degree to which soil changes its volm
under load → COMPRESSIBILITY.
COMPRESSIBILITY ¾ Placement
Pl t off structure
t t made
d off other
th
Structure likely to suffer settlement damage when
placed on highly compressible soil.
materials on soil foundation.

¾ Shear strength → resistance of soil to

sliding

Compressibility.....
.....((2) Consolidation
⇒ Compressibility → Decrease in volm of ¾ Form of compressibility, & occurs under

soil mass as a consequence of such static load

activities ¾ A process of driving water from voids in soil

Volm change → primarily a consequence of: mass

¾ ΔVv ’though can occur to a lesser extent from ¾ Can lead to settlement & may seriously
impair structure founded on soil.
¾ ΔVs

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Compaction Strength
¾ Ability to RESIST FAILURE under action of
¾ Artificial densification of soil
stresses
¾ Used to reduce Vv by: ¾ Influenced by:
¾ vibrating or ¾ mineralogy of constituent particles
¾ character of particle contacts
¾ Loading soil mass
---properties inherited from processes that
formed soil & modified later by
compression, compaction & consolidation

Strength.....
.....((2) Strength.....
.....((3)

Compared to other materials used to build ....reason for this:

structures:
¾it occurs abundantly
¾ soil is a very LOW-STRENGTH material.
¾it is generally available everywhere
However, soil has widespread use as
¾the ease with which it can be handled
building material...

Strength.....
.....((3) Strength.....
.....((4)

Has important role for engg soils: ....is determined by factors that fall into two
¾ In design & construction main groups:

¾ To ensure long-term stability of structures 1. those related to sample preparation & test

on, in & with soil masses procedures:

¾ Void ratio to which soil has been
¾ To ensure stability of natural slopes in soil
compacted
masses
¾ Confining stresses during testing

2
 Strength.....
.....((5) Strength.....
.....((6)

2. those dependent on physical properties So, strength:

of soil
¾ Particle size All these ¾ is behaviour of soil under stress

¾ Particle
P ti l shape
h control
interlock ¾ may be observed by testing columnar
¾ Particle surface roughness of
specimens representative of soil from
¾ Gradation /Grain size distribution particles
which they are taken.

Strength.....
.....((7) Shear Strength
Strength tests:
¾ When material is loaded under MAJOR &
σ σ1 Shear
strength MINOR stresses…..
Unconfined
(uniaxial) σ3
compressive / ¾ its failure is in shear.
¾….its shear
tensile strength – Triaxial testing
Direct Testing ¾ Parameters @ failure → described in

Selection of method to use dependent on: terms of the cohesion (c) & angle of
¾ type of material (cohesive/non-cohesive), &
shearing resistance (φ)
¾ conditions of drainage & confinement required

Shear Strength.....
.....((2) Shear Strength.....
.....((3)
If, with application of If H is increased until block is in LIMITING
W W horizontal force (H),
block still remains equilibrium, i.e. just about to slide:
H
static, REACTION
((R)) will be inclined @ ¾angle α will increase to a limiting value φ.
R an angle (α) to
R α ¾ At this point, horizontal force resisting
vertical so that
W produces an EQUAL horizontal & vertical
& OPPOSITE reaction R components of R
sliding may be determined from equation
without any tendency of become: H = R Sin α; W = R Cos α
block to move! H = R Sin α; W = R Cos α

3
 Shear Strength.....
.....((4) • Shear Strength.....
.....((5)
In COHESIVE soils, additional strength may be
From the relationship
produced by:
R = H / Sin φ; R = W / Cos φ ¾ adhesion / cementing between grains which
H = W ∗ tan φ produces COHESION ((c);
p );
τ = c + σn * tan φ
Dividing thru by A (area of contact), yields:
(Coulumb’s Law)
τ = σn ∗ tan φ τ ≡ Shear stress @ failure (shear strength) (KN m-2);
c ≡ cohesion (KN m-2); σn ≡ normal stress on failure plane
tan φ = coefficient of friction / angle of shearing resistance (KN m-2); φ ≡ angle of shearing resistance / internal friction

Shear Strength.....
.....((5) Shear Box Testing
Case, where SHEAR & NORMAL forces are
Values for c & φ are commonly determined
applied directly on sample:
using:

¾ SHEAR BOX and/or

¾ TRAIXIAL CELL

Shear Box Testing.....(2) Triaxial Cell Testing

SHEAR stress is plotted against NORMAL stress L o a d in g fra m e

L o a d in g ra m
D isp la c e m e n t
L o a d c e ll tra n sd u c e r
Shear C e ll to p p la te
stress
(KN m-2) W a te r
O -rin
i gs

φ φ = Coefficient of friction (o) R u b b e r m e m b ra n e

T op cap S o il
sa m p le P re ssu re c e ll
P e d e sta l P o ro u s d isc
C
C = cohesion (KN m-2)
O -rin g s
D ra in a g e lin e to G D S u n it C e ll p re ss u re
Normal Stress (KN m-2) a n d p re ssu re tra n sd u c e r

4
Triaxial Cell Testing.....(2) Triaxial Cell Testing.....(3)
Depending on:
Minor stress (kN m-2) σ3-1 σ3-2 σ3-3
Shear
Stress Major stress (kN m-2) σ1-1 σ1-2 σ1-3 ¾ soil material involved (cohesive or non-
(kN m-2) φ
cohesive ), &
¾ level of saturation of soil
tests may yield following results:
C σ3-1 σ3-2 σ1-1 σ3-3 σ1-2 σ1-3 9 c = 0 – non-cohesive (sandy) soils
Normal stress (kN m-2)
9 φ = 0 – saturated cohesive (clay) soils
9 c & φ – cohesive (loamy or silty) soils

Triaxial Cell Testing.....(4) Triaxial Cell Testing.....(5)

non-cohesive saturated cohesive cohesive (loamy

Mohr Circle of Stress:
(sandy) soils (clay) soils or silty) soils ¾ Graphical representation of state of stress @
a point.
τ ¾ Axes for construction of the circle are stress
((kN m-2)

τ =C components:
φ ¾τ & σ – referred to as principal stress
c axes.
c
φ
¾ For 2-D or Plane state of stress analysis,
σn (kN m-2)
principal axes are σ1 & σ2

Triaxial Cell Testing.....(6) Shear stress, τ A

r φ
The circle is the locus of coordinate values
σ2 D 2φ E σ1
for σn & τ for points on planes defined by all
F C B
diameter = (σ1 - σ2) Normal stress, σ

c = centre = (σ1 + σ2) / 2

values of φ r = radius = (σ1 - σ2) / 2

Two limiting cases of σn for τ equals zero are

(σ 1 + σ 2 )
σ1 & σ2, which fall on the axis by definition. Normal stress, σ n = FB = + CB
2
Shear stress, τ = AB = r ∗ sin 2φ

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 Permeability
Triaxial Cell Testing.....(8) -Ability of porous medium to transmit fluid through it .
Shear stress, τ A
For flow to take place thru’ saturated medium, there
φ
r should be a gradient.

F σ2 D C 2φ B E σ1
a ete = (σ1 - σ2)
diameter
d Normal stress, σ
c = centre = (σ1 + σ2) / 2
r = radius = (σ1 - σ2) / 2 h1 h2

(σ 1 + σ 2 ) (σ 1 − σ 2 )
Normal stress, σ n = + ∗ cos 2φ dL
2 2 A B
(σ 1 − σ 2 )
Shear stress, τ =
2
∗ sin 2φ The hydraulic gradient,
i= h 1
− h 2
=
dH
i, between A & B is dL dL

Darcy’s Law Darcy’s Law.....(2)

In 1956 a French Engineer – Henry Darcy – Assumptions in experiment were that flow was:
¾ INTERGRANULAR
conducted experiments to analyse flow of
¾ NON – TURBULENT
water thru sand. He showed that specific
Darcy also showed that v was directly
discharge, v is given by: proportional to hydraulic i (gradient).
(gradient)
Q 1 Thus:
v = v αi & v = Ki 2
A ∗t
Q ≡ Quantity of water passing thru a sand sample in a tube (m3) K is the proportionality constant dependent upon:
A ≡ X-sectional area of tube (m2) ¾ Properties of the porous medium
t ≡ time of flow of water (min)
¾ Properties of the fluid medium

Darcy’s Law.....(3) Q = A ∗ t ∗ k ∗ i 4 Sub (3) into (1)

Properties of fluid that affect K are: Or
¾ Fluid density & q = A ∗ k ∗ i 5
where q = Q/t =
flow per unit time
¾ viscosity Or
q
These properties are temperature dependent k = k has dimensions
A ∗ i 6
However, changes if density & viscosity for of velocity
water are very small, ∴rarely of importance In soil- & rock mech., units are m/s, mm/s, cm/year, m/year, etc.
Properties of medium that determine rate of flow
Since fluid concerned in soil & rock mech. is
(k) are: ¾ Mean grain diameter
water, K is termed Coefficient of Permeability,
k. ¾ Distribution of grain sizes
¾ Nature of grain packing
Thus, K=k 3 From (2)
¾ Degree of interconnection of pore spaces

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Determination of permeability in lab Determination of permeability in lab.....(2)
1. Constant head Permeameter method Measured: Q for a given time interval.
¾ Method used primarily on SANDS & GRAVELS ¾ Coeff. of permeability found by applying
DARCY’S LAW:
Thus, Q k ∗ ∆h ∗ A
q= = v ∗ A = k ∗i∗ A =
t L
From which,
k ≡ coeff. of permeability (L/T)
Q ∗L Q ≡ flow volume in time (L3)
k =
A ∗ t ∗ ∆h A ≡ area of x-section of soil sample (L2)
L ≡ length of soil sample (L)
Δh ≡ pressure head (L)

Determination of permeability in lab.....(3) Determination of permeability in lab.....(4)

2. Falling head Permeameter method For an infinitesimal drop in h;
¾ Method is used for FINE SANDS & SILTS h
− a ∗ ∆h = ∆Q = k ∗ A ∗ ∗ dt
142 4 3
flow in standpipe 1 4 2L4 3
flow in the sample

a ∗ dH A
∴− = k ∗ ∗ dt
H L
Integrating on both sides gives:

H 2 dH A t
−a∗ ∫H 1 H
= k ∗ ∗ ∫ dt
L 0

Determination of permeability in lab.....(5) Summary

Result: ¾ Abundance & widespread nature of soil

makes it an important construction
A
− a ∗ (ln H 2 − ln H 1 ) = k ∗ ∗ (t − 0) material.
L
¾ Unless p
placed on rock,, most engg
gg
a ∗L ⎛⎜ H2 ⎞⎟ a ∗L ⎛⎜ H1 ⎞⎟ works must be founded on soil.
∴k = − ∗ln = ∗ln
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
A ∗t ⎝ H1 ⎠ A ∗ t ⎝ H2 ⎠
¾ Soil displays considerable variability in its

a ∗L ⎛ ⎞ characteristics & props owing to variety of

∴k = ∗ ln ⎜ H 1 ⎟
A ∗t ⎜ ⎟ geologic factors.
⎝ H2 ⎠

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Summary.....(2)

• Engg props of soil define its suitability for

particular use.

• Physical characteristics & engg props of soil

are derived from parent material & geologic
processes that produced it.