DOI: 10.31276/VJSTE.65(1).

03-08 PHYSICAL SCIENCES | PHYSICS, ENGINEERING

3D printable concrete: Mixture design and

laboratory test methods
Thi Loan Pham1, 2*, Xiao Jian Zhuang 1, Thi Hoai Thu Nguyen 2,
Phan Anh Nguyen2, Duy Thanh Trinh2, Trong Quang Do2
Department of Structural Engineering, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Shanghai, PR China
1

Department of Civil Engineering, Haiphong University, 171 Phan Dang Luu, Ngoc Son Ward, Kien An District, Hai Phong City, Vietnam
2

Received 8 December 2021; revised 22 February 2022; accepted 2 March 2022

Abstract:
Experimental results of the mix design and fresh properties of a proposed concrete for 3D printing are presented
in this paper. Layer-by-layer sample components were built by the designed concrete and extruded through a
nozzle. The two most critical rheological properties of the designed mix are extrudability and buildability as
they are both highly influenced by mix proportion and the presence of superplasticizers. Therefore, this study
focused on mix proportion design approaches and laboratory test methods, which generally allowed access to
the fresh concrete’s printable properties. Because they are efficient and convenient in construction, materials
including cement, fly ash, natural sand, and superplasticizer were selected for mixing proportion analysis.
Slump-flow tests, V-funnel tests, buildability tests, and extrudability tests were also employed to access the
printability of the proposed mixture in this study. This first analysis on the mixture design approach and
laboratory test methods to evaluate the printable properties of 3D-printable concrete can be considered a
reference and orientation to further develop 3D printing technology in Vietnam.
Keywords: buildability test, extrudability test, slump-flow test, V-funnel test, 3D concrete printing technology.
Classification numbers: 2.1, 2.3

1. Introduction deformation due to its self-weight and the weight of the

layers printed above it. From a rheological aspect, while
Researchers worldwide have been paying attention to
inside the pump and nozzle, the material must be liquid-
3D printing, also known as additive manufacturing, for a
like with low viscosity, but once printed out, it must
few decades. The idea of 3D printing has also attracted
transition into solid-like behaviour with enough strength
the attention of engineers, architects, and investors
to prevent deformation.
because of its capability to transform a drawing into
an object. Since the construction industry has adopted Fortunately, contour crafting (CC) and binder
this new technology, its usage needs to be extended jetting are successful printing methods for cement-
beyond making quick prototypes to the final production based materials [6, 7]. Moreover, attempts to develop
of structures. Since 2014, many well-known buildings, appropriate printing methods for cement-based materials
bridges, and architectural icons have been constructed have been investigated by many researchers as well [8-
on-site by applying 3D printing technology [1-5]. These 13]. In this study, the authors employed the results of J.
achievements offer insights into the full potential that 3D Jo, et al. (2020) [14] and C. Zhang, et al. (2019) [15]
printing technology can bring to the construction industry. as basic directions to design the mix proportion of the
However, there are only a few published documents tested concrete. The main constituents of the mixtures
about material requirements for 3D printability despite mentioned here are cement, sand, and fly ash, which has
its rapid growth. In a successful process extrusion, i.e., been selected by other authors as well. Then, V-funnel
in order to be extruded through the nozzle, the material tests, buildability tests, and extrudability tests were
must be flowable enough. Nevertheless, when a layer is carried out to reveal the printability of the concrete. The
extruded, it must have sufficient shear strength to resist V-funnel and buildability tests are simple and relatively

*
Corresponding author: Email: [email protected]

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reliable tests [16]. This first analysis on the mixture Compared to traditional construction, fresh concrete
design approach and laboratory test methods to evaluate properties play an essential role in concrete development.
printable properties of 3D printing concrete can be Therefore, the printability of the concrete is firstly
considered a reference and orientation to develop 3D investigated in the process of 3D printing technology. The
printing technology in Vietnam. ability of the material and nozzle combination to produce
In summary, this study suggests a mix proportion a well-controlled filament is related to printability [19].
design approach and laboratory tests that access printable In this research, the ability of fresh concrete to (1) be
properties of fresh concrete with convenient applications. extruded continuously, without surface fracture; (2) not
cause jamming or clogging of the nozzle; and (3) build
2. Materials and process for printability up with acceptable deformation before setting are all
The sources of the materials used in this work can considered printability characteristics, which has also
be found in previous research by the authors [17]. For been explained in other words by authors [19-22]. These
the reader’s convenience, the contents are briefly re- characteristics can also be considered as extrudability
introduced. Cement Portland by Chinfon (OPC) and and buildability.
Fly-ash (FA) by Hai Phong Thermal Power Plant were
3. Mixture proportion design
used to form the binder component. A commercially
available manufactured sand with a nominal maximum Investigations on the effect of material composition
aggregate size of 1.25 mm was used. Superplasticizer on the properties of 3D-printability have been carried
SikaPlast-398 (SP) was used to adjust the workability of out by many other authors [10, 11, 18, 20, 21, 23-25].
the fresh concrete. The constitutions of the concrete are While there is still limited research on mixture design
presented in Fig. 1. approaches, some highlighted results can be found in

(A) Cement (B) Fly ash (C) Sand (D) Superplasticiser

Fig. 1. Constitutions of the proposed concrete.

Fresh and hardened concrete mechanical properties of a other research [9, 14, 15, 26]. Among these advances,
mix design are required to meet the performance, as shown the results of C. Zhang, et al. (2019) [15] and J. Jo, et
in Fig. 2. al. (2020) [14] were referred to when proposing the mix
proportions.
According to J. Jo, et al. (2020) [14], the amount of
sand can be determined based on the equation below:
S=0.4B (1)
where B is the binder (mm); S is the amount of sand with
a diameter smaller than 0.7 mm.
Following the authors, they added a sand with 0.7
mm maximum size to avoid bleeding or clogging while
printing to produce a suitable mortar mixture. According
Fig. 2. The performance of 3D printing concrete during the printing to C. Zhang, et al. (2019) [15], the amount of sand can be
and hardened processes [18]. determined based on the equation below:

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m1.18=4.22F+351 (2) Table 1. Concrete mixture proportion.

Mix label Fly ash to cement Water to binder Sand to binder SP to binder (%)
Note: From natural sand by sieve of 1.18 mm square
Z_2.4 0.667 0.30 2.4 1.2
hole is fine sand; F is the flowability of cement paste
J_0.4 0.667 0.30 0.4 0.2
(mm); m1.18 is the amount of sand (gram/litre). M1_1.1 0.667 0.30 1.1 0.6

The research results of Eq. (1) and Eq. (2) help to M2_0.8 0.667 0.30 0.8 0.4
M3_0.5 0.667 0.30 0.5 0.2
quantify the ratio of binder and fine aggregate (sand).
However, other factors used in this study including fly Note: Ratio by weight and to the binder.

ash, superplasticizer ratio, water ratio, and sand diameter 4. Laboratory test methods and results
are different from the studies of the two above authors.
4.1. V-funnel test
Therefore, concrete with the mixture proportions
The viscosity and the deformability of fresh concrete
designed in this study should be further evaluated for
can be evaluated with the V-funnel test. After filling the
printability by the test methods presented in this study. V-funnel with the prepared fresh concrete, it was lifted
To calculate the amount of sand, the flowability test of and the concrete was passed through the opening well
the binder needs to be done for different values of slump with no segregation or jamming. According to previous
research, this value of time, Vt, falls within the typical
flow. The test procedure can be referred to in Ref. [27].
range of 9 to 25 s [16]. The time (Vt) to empty the
To replace the maximum amount of fly ash to cement, concrete was listed in Table 2 with the range of 15 and 25
but also while minimizing the effects on the compressive s corresponding to Z_2.4 and J_0.4, respectively. The test
strength of the concrete, the ratio between fly ash and was carried out as shown in Fig. 4.
cement was determined to be 4:6. The water to cement Table 2. The time (Vt) of the V-funnel tests.
ratio was 0.3 because the workability of the concrete was Mix label Vt (s) Description
adjusted with a superplasticizer. The fine sand used in Z_2.4 9 Segregation/jamming
this study is from natural sand filtered through a 1.25- J_0.4 25 No segregation/no jamming

mm square hole sieve, which is much larger than that M1_1.1 11 Segregation but no jamming
M2_0.8 14 Segregation but no jamming
of Junho and only a little larger than that of Zhang. The
M3_0.5 24 No segregation/no jamming
flow slump value was then measured as 240 mm, as
shown in Fig. 3.

(A) Z_2.4 (B) J_0.4

Fig. 3. Flow-slump of the tested binder.

According to the Eq. (1) and Eq. (2), the amount of

sand was calculated. However, the ratio of sand to binder
by Zhang and Junho has a large gap, so the authors
propose a range from 0.4 to 2.4 with specific values.
Then, five initial mixes with different proportions of (C) M1_1.1 (D) M2_0.8 (E) M3_0.5

sand/binder were designed, as shown in Table 1. Fig. 4. V-funnel tests.

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According to Table 2, with Vt = 9, 11, and 14 s, The mix label Z_2.4 had a slump of the concrete cylinder
the three mix labels Z_2.4, M1_1.1, and M2_0.8 had at 8 mm with almost no deformation. On the other hand,
segregation. Meanwhile, segregation did not occur with the three mix labels M1_1.1, M2_0.8, and M3_0.5
the mix labels J_0.4 and M3_0.5. In the V-funnel tests, demonstrated a modest deformation phenomenon with
only mix label Z_2.4 caused jamming.   slumps of 11, 12, and 13 mm, respectively.
4.2. Buildability test 4.3. Extrudability test
The slump height remains of the concrete cylinder The print system used in this study was designed
under the force of gravity can be used to evaluate the and created based on the screw principle as presented
yield stress and the buildability of the tested concrete. in Fig. 6. The ability to transport the fresh concrete
The height and diameter of the cylinder mould were through a hopper and screwing system into a nozzle
chosen to be the same value of 80 mm due to the previous where it produces a continuous filament is considered
research done by the authors [15]. Therefore, the extrudability. In this research, the extrudability was
buildability is assessed by the shape and the remaining
tested with filaments of 25 mm wide (printed from a 25
height of the cylinder sample. If significant deformation
mm nozzle). The filaments must be homogeneous and
is not observed after lifting the mould away, it can be
continuously extruded without blockage, cracking, or
concluded that the concrete has appropriate buildability.
segregation throughout the extrusion process. A printed
The slumps of the mixtures are shown in Table 3. The sample, furthermore, must be well-shaped to retain its
concrete cylinder slump remained in a range from 8 to formation.
22 mm, and the specimen did not deform after lifting the
mould away, as shown in Fig. 5. These values mean that
the concrete has enough solid ability.
Table 3. The slump of the samples in the buildability test.

Mix label S (mm) Description

Z_2.4 8 No deformation/appropriate buildability
J_0.4 22 Significant deformation/inappropriate buildability
M1_1.1 11 Lightly deformation/appropriate buildability
M2_0.8 12 Somewhat deformation/appropriate buildability (A) Screw detail (used with permission from [14]) (B) Print-head system
M3_0.5 13 A little deformation/appropriate buildability Fig. 6. Screw and nozzle drive.
Table 4. Characteristics of printed mixtures.

Extruded Cracking/ Shape

Mix label Blockage
continuously segregation retention
Z_2.4 No No Seriously Bad
J_0.4 Yes No No Bad
M1_1.1 Yes No Yes Acceptable
(A) Z_2.4 (B) J_0.4 (C) M1_1.1
M2_0.8 Yes No Yes Normal
M3_0.5 Yes No Yes Good

In Table 4, the extrusion process was not continuous

with only mix label Z 2.4, which had serous cracking
and segregation without blocking resulting in poor form
retention. Mix label J_0.4 failed to maintain good form
(D) M2_0.8 (E) M3_0.5
despite a continuous extrusion demonstration that was
Fig. 5. The slump of the sample in the buildability test. free of blockage, breaking, or segregation. The three
The concrete cylinder with mix label J_0.4 indicated other mix labels M1_1.1, M2_0.8, and M3_0.5 were
an incapacity for buildability with a slump of 22 mm and continuously extruded with satisfactory form retention
unacceptable deformation. The four other mix labels, on and no blockage but did experience a breaking or
the other hand, proved to be appropriate for buildability. segregation phenomenon as shown in Fig. 7.

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Flowability test Sand amount

by Zhang
Constituents Mix
(Cement; fly ash; proportion
sand; Water; by authors
superplasticizer)
Scale factor Sand amount
by Junho

(A) Z_2.4
Printability Viscosity test
Extrudability test
evaluation Buildability test

Fig.
Fig.8.8.Mix
Mixproportion
proportiondesign
designprocess proposed.
process proposed.

Secondly,
Secondly, thethe workability
workability was significantly
was significantly influenced byinfluenced
the dosage of by
the
the dosage of
superplasticizer. theseries,
In the superplasticizer. In the series,
increasing the superplasticizer dosageincreasing
from 0.2 to
the superplasticizer
1.2% dosagethefrom
by weight of binder increased 0.2 to
workability, i.e.,1.2%
reducedby weight
Vt from 25 to of
9s
binder2).increased
(Table the workability,
The superplasticizer thus provedi.e., reduced
crucial Vt from
for printing 25totoattain
concrete 9s
(B) J_0.4 (Table 2).workability
reasonable The superplasticizer
and high strength thus
with aproved crucial ratio.
low water-binder for printing
However,
concrete to attain reasonable workability and high strength with
ease of flow through the V-funnel does not equate to printability. In particular, the
a low water-binder ratio. However, ease of flow through the
mix label Z_2.4 had a flow time of 9 s, but the printed concrete was too hard to
V-funnel does not equate to printability. In particular, the mix
guarantee the continuity of the printed filaments. The reason behind this is the
label Z_2.4 had a flow time of 9 s, but the printed concrete was
amount
too hard of sand
to inguarantee
this mixturethe
was the largest.
continuity of the printed filaments.
The Meanwhile,
reason behind this pattern
the printed is theensures
amount of sand
continuity in J_this
in the mixture
model with a
was the largest.
relatively long flow time of 22 s, but the printed filaments were seriously deformed.
(C) M1_1.1 Meanwhile,
The reason is due to itthe printed
having pattern
the least amountensures continuity
of sand and unreasonableinadditives.
the J_
model
In with a samples,
the remaining relatively
withlong flow intime
a decrease sandof 22 s,and
content buta the printed
corresponding
filaments
decrease were seriously
of superplasticizer, deformed.
the flow The and
time increased reason is due of
the printability to the
it
havingalsothe
sample least improved.
gradually amount This
of sand and that
study found unreasonable additives.
assessing the workability of
In the remaining
concrete samples,
through the V-funnel test with a decrease
is reasonable. in sand
However, content
the results of the and
flow
a corresponding decrease of superplasticizer, the flow time
(D) M2_0.8
increased and the printability of the sample also gradually 13

improved. This study found that assessing the workability of

concrete through the V-funnel test is reasonable. However,
the results of the flow time tests provide a relatively limited
preliminary assessment of the printability of the concrete.
Thirdly, the qualitative relationship between buildability
and extrudability is relatively straightforward. When the
(E) M3_0.5 Z_2.4 mix produced a good result with an 8 mm slump,
Fig. 7. Printed samples. the extrudability test was a bit difficult to complete, and the
printability test revealed that the sample did not satisfy the
5. Results and discussion printable quality due to extensive cracking. Meanwhile, the
extrudability test was easier to perform with the J_ 0.4 mix
Based on the investigation presented above, some with a slump of 22 mm, but the result of the printability test
highlighted discussions and suggestions can be given. showed that the sample did not meet the printable quality
Firstly, a series of preliminary mixtures was tested due to excessive deformation. The rest of the samples show
an increasing slump, the extrusion test not difficult, and
to find out the maximum particle grading including
the print quality also improving. The mixtures M2_0.8 and
sand, cement, and fly ash for extrudability. With the
M3_0.5 give the best print quality as captured in Figs. 7D, E.
mechanics of the printing system as shown in Fig. 6,
natural sand filtered through a 1.25-mm square hole Finally, owing to its great sensitivity to workability and
sieve was available. Then, the mix of available particle extrudability, the ratio of sand to binder should not exceed 1.2,
combinations was experimented with the admixture and the superplasticizer dosage should be tightly controlled.
dosages varied by 0.2-1.2% to approach the optimum
6. Conclusions
flowability, buildability, and extrudability. Based on the
present study, the authors developed a mix proportion Based on the test results of the first analysis on mixture
design process as presented in Fig. 8. proportion design approach, and the tests used to evaluate

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