Cognitive Psychology

Paper: V
Code: PSY. 555
Credit: 3
Full Marks: 100 (Theory: 60 + Practical: 40)
Teaching Hours: 48
 Unit 3: Attention and Pattern Recognition
1) Selective attention
2) Selective attention models: Bottleneck theories (Filter
theory, attenuation & multi model), Capacity models, and
Automaticity
3) Limited attention Capacity and Automaticity
4) Sustained attention: factors influencing sustained attention
5) Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
6) Pattern Recognition: Bottom-up approaches (template
matching, prototypes and feature analysis) and Top-down
approaches
 Attention
• Attention refers to systems involved in the selection and prioritization of
information processing, and it is intimately linked with perception and memory
and is thus central to almost everything we do.
• We can direct attention intentionally, for example when we move our eyes
around the environment to search the visual scene for something specific, or
when we ‘tune in’ to listen to a conversation in a noisy room.
• Attention can also be captured unintentionally, for example when a sudden
movement ‘catches our eye’, or when we hear a familiar sound such as our
name being spoken, and it seems to ‘pop out’ from the noise in a crowd.
• Attention also refers to a more general, non-selective state of alertness or
arousal.
• Experiments have shown that it is possible to distinguish these different
aspects, and studies of brain activity have revealed that attention involves
multiple areas of the brain working together.
 Attention
• The most characteristic property of attention is that it is limited.
• Desimone and Duncan (1995) say ‘The first basic phenomenon is limited capacity for
processing information. At any given time only a small amount of information available on
the retina can be processed and used.’
• William James (1890) said that ‘Everyone knows what attention is. It is the taking possession
of mind in clear and vivid form of one out of what would seem several simultaneous
possible objects or trains of thought.’
• James went on to say ‘Focalisation, concentration of consciousness is of its essence. It
implies the withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others.’
• James adds some further properties of attention, in particular that attention may be given
to external or internal stimuli and that what is attended becomes consciously available to
us. When we are conscious of something, that information is held in short-term working
memory, which can only maintain and manipulate a limited amount of information.
• We are also limited because we can only look in one direction at once, reach for one thing
with one hand, or say one word at a time. These limitations necessitate the use of attention
to select and prioritise which information to process.
 Attention
• Attention is ‘the focusing and concentration of mental effort that usually
results in conscious awareness of certain aspects of external sensory stimuli or
mental experiences’ (Hill, 2001).
• There are two types of attention:
• Focused/selective attention : concentrates on how attention is focused on particular
input stimulus, why it is selective and what happens to the non-attended stimuli.
• Divided attention : looks at how attention can be devoted to more than one input
stimulus and what the capacities are on this.
• Eysenck & Keane (2000) believe that attention is affected by:
• Task difficulty: as it is harder to perform two different tasks.
• Practice: if one (or both) tasks are well practised then they are easier to perform.
• Similarity: similar tasks are harder to perform simultaneously due to interference, which
is most common when they use the same modality, processing stage or response
mechanism.
 Selective Attention
• Selective attention is the ability to select from various factors or stimuli that
are present and to focus on only the one that you want.
• Everyday we are constantly exposed to a number of environmental factors
or stimuli, but we respond by selecting a particular factor to focus on.
• Selective attention basically allows us to be able to select what we want to
pay attention to.
• When employing selective attention we are able to avoid distractions from
both external and internal influences.
• If we are good at selective attention, we are good at ignoring distractions
and we are able to maintain a specific level of performance in the presence
of distracting stimuli.
 Selective Attention
• Attention implies that you have the ability to focus your mental efforts on specific stimuli
while excluding other stimuli from considerations. Therefore, one important aspects of
attention is selectivity.
• It is the ability to shift the focus of mental efforts from one stimulus to another.
Therefore, it is shiftable.
• We can apparently maintain more than one focus of mental effort simultaneously.
• The focus of mental effort not only is selective and shiftable but also it can be divided
into parts.
• As a general definition, attention refers to the concentration and focusing of mental
efforts – a focus that is selective, shiftable and divisible.
• Selective attention is the process of directing our awareness to relevant stimuli while
ignoring irrelevant stimuli in the environment.
• This is an important process as there is a limit to how much information can be
processed at a given time, and selective attention allows us to tune out insignificant
details and focus on what is important.
 Studies of Selective Attention
• Early studies of selective attention often involves dichotic processing of materials.
• Suppose you are at a dinner party. You are surrounded by different types of
people. As you talk to someone else, you become aware of the conversation of
the people around you.
• Colin Cherry, 1953 referred to this phenomenon as the cocktail party problem, the
process of tracking one conversation in the face of the distraction of other
conversations.
• He studied selective attention in a more carefully controlled experimental setting.
He devised a task known as shadowing.
• In shadowing, you listen to two different messages. Cherry presented a separate
message to each ear, known as dichotic presentation.
• You are required to repeat back only one of the messages as soon as possible
after you hear it. In other words, you are to follow one message but ignore the
other.
 Studies of Selective Attention
• Cherry’s participants were quite successful in shadowing distinct messages in dichotic-
listening tasks, although such shadowing required a significant amount of concentration.
• The participants were also able to notice physical, sensory changes in the unattended
message—for example, when the message was changed to a tone or the voice changed
from a male to a female speaker.
• However, they did not notice semantic changes in the unattended message. They failed
to notice even when the unattended message shifted from English to German or was
played backward.
• Conversely, about one third of people, when their name is presented during these
situations, will switch their attention to their name (Moray, 1959).
• Some researchers have noted that those who hear their name in the unattended
message tend to have limited working-memory capacity.
• As a result, they are easily distracted. Infants will also shift their attention to one of two
messages if their name is said.
 Studies of Selective Attention
• Earlier such studies were widely interpreted as indicating that attention was highly
selective. We become conscious of what we attend to.
• Moreover, the focus of attention was thought to be consciously directed so that little
unattended information could enter our consciousness.
• According to such viewpoint, subject would have difficulty doing two demanding tasks
simultaneously because as they focused on one task, they were no longer conscious of the
events taking place in the second task.
• Consequently, some information would be lost no matter how quickly the subjects
attempted to alternate between the two tasks, and so their performance on both tasks
would decline.
• The study by Mowbray in 1953 also supports this position. Mowbray instructed his
subjects to attend to two messages simultaneously. The subjects heard one story while
silently reading a second story whose content was unrelated to the story presented aurally.
Subjects then took a test measuring comprehension of both stories.
• The subjects almost always comprehended one of the stories substantially better than the
other, the subject’s poorer score was usually at the chance or guessing level.
 Studies of Selective Attention
• Three factors help you to selectively attend only to the message of the target speaker to
whom you wish to listen:
1. Distinctive sensory characteristics of the target’s speech. Examples of such
characteristics are high versus low pitch, pacing, and rhythmicity.
2. Sound intensity (loudness).
3. Location of the sound source.
• Attending to the physical properties of the target speaker’s voice has its advantages.
• You can avoid being distracted by the semantic content of messages from nontarget
speakers in the area.
• Clearly, the sound intensity of the target also helps. In addition, you probably turn one
ear toward and the other ear away from the target speaker.
• This method offers no greater total sound intensity. The reason is that with one ear
closer to the speaker, the other is farther away. The key advantage is the difference in
volume. It allows you to locate the source of the target sound.
 Models/Theories of Selective Attention
• The bottleneck theory suggests that individuals have a limited amount of attentional
resources that they can use at one time. Therefore, information and stimuli are 'filtered'
somehow so that only the most salient and important information is perceived.
• This theory was proposed by Broadbent in 1958. Picture a large bottle filled with sand
that is turned upside down. The bottleneck restricts the flow of sand so that it slowly
pours out instead of coming out all at once. Stimuli in our environment is the same way -
if we perceived every visual, auditory, olfactory, and tactile sense all at once all of the
time our brains would be overflowing. So there is a mechanism of sorts that limits the
amount of information we pay attention to.
• Broadbent proposed early selection - that physical characteristics of messages are used
to select one message for further processing and all others are lost. In 1963 Deutsch &
Deutsch proposed that all messages get through, but that only one response can be
made which was coined late selection. Then in 1964 Treisman proposed attenuation
which suggests that physical characteristics are used to select one message for full
processing and other messages are given partial processing.
 Bottleneck Theories
• Filter Theory: Broadbent, 1958
• Late Selection Theory: Deutsch & Deutsch, 1963
• Attenuation Theory: Treisman, 1964
 Filter Theory: Broadbent, 1958
• Broadbent (1958) proposed that physical characteristics of messages are used to
select one message for further processing and that all others are lost
• Information from all of the stimuli presented at any given time enters an unlimited
capacity sensory buffer. One of the inputs is then selected on the basis of its physical
characteristics for further processing by being allowed to pass through a filter.
• Because we have only a limited capacity to process information, this filter is designed
to prevent the information-processing system from becoming overloaded.
• The inputs not initially selected by the filter remain briefly in the sensory buffer store,
and if they are not processed they decay rapidly. Broadbent assumed that the filter
rejected the unattended message at an early stage of processing.
• According to Broadbent the meaning of any of the messages is not taken into account
at all by the filter. All semantic processing is carried out after the filter has selected
the message to pay attention to. So whichever message(s) restricted by the bottle
neck (i.e. not selective) is not understood.
 Filter Theory: Broadbent, 1958
• Broadbent (1958) developed a theory of attention attempting to account for the findings
by Cherry and Mowbray.
• Broadbent proposed that the focus of attention is determined by three components: a
selective filter, channel of limited capacity and a detection device.
• The sensory register is a memory of stimuli that have recently been presented. Stimuli are
stored in the sensory memory.
• Although the duration of this memory is brief, its contents are thought to be exact
representation of the original stimuli.
• While they are stored in the sensory register, the stimuli are subjected to a pre-attentive
analysis, which determines some of their physical characteristics, such as pitch and
intensity.
• As a result of this pre-attentive analysis, the selective filter determines which stimuli will
undergo further processing. The stimuli not selected are essentially turned out, no further
elaboration of them takes place.
 Filter Theory: Broadbent, 1958
• Following their selection, the stimuli are shunted along a limited capacity channel to the
detection device.
• The channel's relatively limited capacity has important implications for the human
information processing.
• The shunting channel lacks the capacity to carry all the incoming information
simultaneously to the detection device. This why Broadbent's viewpoint is referred to as a
bottleneck theory.
• Information in the shunting channel is transferred to the detection device, when the
information's meaning is analyzed.
• According to Broadbent's position, we know only about the stimuli that make it past the
selective filter.
• Information that was stopped at that stage is subjected only to a pre-attentive analysis,
which is incapable of determining the stimulus's meaning.
 Filter Theory: Broadbent, 1958
• According to one of the earliest theories of attention, we filter information right
after we notice it at the sensory level.
• Multiple channels of sensory input reach an attentional filter. Those channels
can be distinguished by their characteristics like loudness, pitch, or accent.
• The filter permits only one channel of sensory information to proceed and reach
the processes of perception. We thereby assign meaning to our sensations.
Other stimuli will be filtered out at the sensory level and may never reach the
level of perception.
• Broadbent’s theory was supported by Colin Cherry’s findings that sensory
information sometimes may be noticed by an unattended ear if it does not have
to be processed elaborately (e.g., you may notice that the voice in your
unattended ear switches to a tone). But information requiring higher perceptual
processes is not noticed if not attended to (e.g., you would likely not notice that
the language in your unattended ear switches from English to German).
 Filter Theory: Broadbent, 1958
• This theory provides a reasonable account of Cherry's and Mowbray's findings.
• Mowbray (1953) found that subjects could apparently extract the meaning of only one
story when two had been presented – one visually and the other aurally.
• In this case, the decrement in performance was produced by the selective filter inability
to switch rapidly enough between the auditory and visual channels.
• Regarding Cherry's findings, the filter is tuned to accept information from the shadowed
ear and this information is loaded into the shunting channel and ultimately processed for
meaning by the detection device.
• Moray (1959) found that subjects sometimes recognized their names had been uttered in
the non-shadowed message.
• According to Broadbent's theory, this recognition should not have happened. Names are
meaningful to their owners, but the analysis of meaning is supposedly carried out by the
detection device, which non-shadowed materials never enter.
 Filter Theory: Broadbent, 1958
• Treisman (1960) reported that subjects could shadow the semantic content (meaning)
of a message even when the message was played into the non-shadowed ear.
• Treisman instructed her subjects to shadow one ear, into which was played a
meaningful message. The non-shadowed ear received a random string of words.
• Sometimes, in the delivery, the semantic content switched ears. The random words
were also switched into the shadowed ear.
• Although the subjects had been instructed to shadow a particular ear, many of them
ignored the instructions and shadowed the meaningful message instead. This
indicates that the subjects had some knowledge about the semantic content of the
non-shadowed message.
• In 1964, Treisman used dichotic listening procedure to shadow a message and the
message in the non-shadowed ear was to be ignored. Initially unknown to the subjects
that the message was same.
• The non-shadowed message was started either slightly ahead of or slightly behind the
shadowed message.
 Filter Theory: Broadbent, 1958
• Treisman found that all the subjects detected that the two message were the same.
• When the shadowed message led the unshadowed message, detection occurred
when the message were still 4.5 seconds apart.
• When the unshadowed message led the shadowed message, detection did not
typically take place until the message were much closer about 1.4 seconds apart.
• The difference in time reflects the extent to which the materials have been processed.
• The shadowed message is processed by the detection device and is passed on to the
short term memory.
• The non shadowed message never leaves the sensory register and its representation is
far less durable than that of the shadowed message.
• This finding seems to indicate that a semantic analysis of the sensory register is
carried out, which is contrary to the predictions of Broadbent’s model.
 Attenuation Theory: Treisman,
Treisman, 1964
• Treisman proposed a modification for the basic theory, which is known as the
attenuation theory.
• According to this theory, incoming stimuli might undergo three kinds of analysis or
test.
• The first test analyzes the physical properties of the stimulus.
• The second test determines whether the stimuli are linguistics and if so, groups them
into syllables and words.
• The final test recognizes the words and assign meanings to them.
• All three tests are not necessarily carried out on all incoming stimuli. Rather, the
processing is continued until the competing stimuli can be disentangled from one
another.
• Disentangling competing stimuli sometimes require little processing.
 Attenuation Theory: Treisman,
Treisman, 1964
• According to Treisman, in this theory, there is not a complete tuning out of the non
shadowed message, but rather an attenuation (turning down) of some messages that
have been sorted out following the results of the tests.
• This model differs from the filter model in two ways. First, the filter model postulates
that the basis of selective attention is a fairly crude analysis of physical characteristics
of the incoming stimuli. The attenuation model maintains that the pre-attentive
analysis is much more complex and may even consists of semantic processing.
• Second, the filter in the filter theory is an all-or-none affair. Whatever is not selected is
tuned out completely. The attenuation model however supposes that non-selected
channels are not completely shut off but are simply turned down or damped.
• These distinctions are consistent with the findings of Cherry and Kruger (1983), who
studied the selective attention abilities of learning disabled children, where the
performance of LD children was substantially worse than that of normal-achieving
child.
 Attenuation Theory: Treisman,
Treisman, 1964
• Treisman (1964) filter attenuates rather than eliminates the unattended material.
• Attenuation is like turning down the volume so that if you have 4 sources of sound in one
room (TV, radio, people talking, baby crying) you can turn down or attenuate 3 in order to
attend to the fourth. This means that people can still process the meaning of attended
message(s).
• In her experiments, Treisman demonstrated that participants were still able to identify
the contents of an unattended message, indicating that they were able to process the
meaning of both the attended and unattended messages.
• Treisman carried out dichotic listening tasks using the speech shadowing
method. Typically, in this method participants are asked to simultaneously repeat aloud
speech played into one ear (called the attended ear) whilst another message is spoken to
the other ear.
• Clearly, then, the unattended message was being processed for meaning and Broadbent's
Filter Model, where the filter extracted on the basis of physical characteristics only, could
not explain these findings. The evidence suggests that Broadbent's Filter Model is not
adequate, it does not allow for meaning being taken into account.
 Late Selection Theory:
Theory: Deutsch & Deutsch, 1963
• The model was first proposed by Deutsch and Deutsch in 1963 and was
revised several times by Norman (1969, 1976).
• This model introduces the idea of late selection and puts the bottleneck of
processing information later than the attenuator model does.
• This model suggests that all information is initially processed and that
selection only takes place after each input (or message) has been analyzed in
the memory system.
• In this model, selection for attention is closer to the responses (output) than
the senses (input).
• Selection then takes place based on the pertinence of the information.
Information that is the most pertinent (e.g. relevant and/or important) is
most likely to be selected.
 Late Selection Theory:
Theory: Deutsch & Deutsch, 1963
• Although Treisman’s theory provides a good account for many of the
phenomena associated with selective attention, it has a serious shortcoming.
• It seems too complicated and the theory postulates that preattentive analysis is
almost as complete as the attentive analysis. If so, what’s the point in doing the
preattentive analysis?
• A simpler alternative to the Treisman position was originally proposed by
Deutsch and Deutsch (1963).
• According to this theory, the bottleneck in selective attention occurs later in the
processing of information than Treisman theory proposed.
• Treisman maintained that the preattentive analysis determines what
information is selected for further processing. Deutsch and Deutsch argued that
almost all the incoming stimuli are sent on for further processing.
• When the information reaches the working memory, selection for further
processing takes place at this site.
 Late Selection Theory:
Theory: Deutsch & Deutsch, 1963
• This viewpoint is referred to as the late selection theory because the selection for
further processing is made in the working memory rather than earlier in the
channels of sensory memory.
• The late selection model predicts that all incoming stimuli are processed.
Consequently, subjects should recognize information under almost any
circumstances, even when information is presented to a nonshadowed ear.
• This was tested in a study by Lewis (1970), in a dichotic listening task, where
subjects were asked to shadow the words presented in one ear and ignore
anything presented in the nonshadowed ear.
• Words were presented in nonshadowed ear, words were sometimes semantically
unrelated to the words being shadowed and sometimes the nonshadowed words
were synonyms of the shadowed words.
• Lewis found that presenting a nonshadowed synonym produced a delay in the
subject’s response which was not observed when the nonshadowed stimulus was
an unrelated word.
 Late Selection Theory:
Theory: Deutsch & Deutsch, 1963
• According to Norman (1968), all information is transmitted to the working
memory and the transmission is thought to be parallel.
• Because the capacity of working memory is limited, not all the information can
be stored there.
• A judgment is made about the material’s importance and those materials
considered important is elaborated fully that may pass into the Long term
memory.
• Anything not important is not elaborated or rehearsed and is forgotten.
 Multi Model Theory:
Theory: Johnston and Heinz, 1978
• Multimodel theory was developed by Johnston and Heinz in 1978.
• This theory believes that attention is a flexible system that allows selection of a stimulus
over others at three stages.
• At stage one, the sensory representation of stimuli are constructed.
• At stage two, the semantic representation are constructed.
• At stage three, the sensory and semantic representations enter the consciousness.
• It is also suggested that more processing requires more mental efforts.
• When the messages are selected on the basis of stage one processing (early selection),
less mental effort is required than when the selection is based on stage three processing
(late selection).
• In 1978, Johnston and Heinz proposed a broader model in the form of ‘multimode
theory,’ which viewed attention as a flexible system that allows selection of a message
over others at several different points. Later selection requires more processing, capacity,
and effort.
 Limited Attention Models
• They are also called alternatives to filter theories.
• It consists of:
• Kahneman’s capacity Model: It is also known as Kahneman’s
central capacity theory. Attention is a skill rather than a simple
process. Capacity is limited but varies. Most attention would be
devoted to the tasks where there is high level of difficulty.
• Automaticity: Hasher and Zacks comment that there are two
pathways to automatic processing (Heredity and Learning).
Automatic processing takes place automatically without any
efforts. Highly practice activities becomes automatic. There
must be free flow of information from memory to the subject’s
control of action.
 Kahneman Capacity Models
• “Attention and Effort" was a major work of Kahneman in 1973.
• He shifted the focus from bottleneck to capacity. There is flexibility in attention,
like we can change our attention from one thing to other thing.
• There is a lot of evidence that our bottleneck is actually adjustable and it can
move from early to late.
• There is a general limit on a person's capacity to perform mental work. A person
has considerable control over how this capacity is allocated.
• Kahenman argued that the location of bottleneck in selective attention tasks
seemed less important than understanding what the task itself demanded of
the person.
• Driving and talking are usually not highly demanding tasks, we can do both
simultaneously. However, driving in heavy traffic is more demanding so we
would expect that conversation might break down during heavy traffic
conditions.
 Kahneman Capacity Models
• Rather than taking about funneling stimuli along some limited capacity
channel, Kahneman maintained that attention could be understood as a set
of cognitive processes for categorizing and recognizing stimuli. However, the
cognitive resources were limited.
• To fully recognize a stimulus, resources were required. Resources were used
based on the nature of the stimulus.
• The incoming stimuli don’t grab the resources all on their own, instead the
cognitive system features a stage in which resources are allocated to process
incoming stimuli.
• Johnston and Heinz (1978), points out, allocation of cognitive resources is
flexible and under our control. Rather than being slaves to incoming stimuli,
we are able to provide cognitive resources to important stimuli.
• The greater the level of arousal, the greater the pool of resources upto a
certain point.
• Beyond that point, increase in arousal may result in a decrease in the
available resources.
• While incoming stimuli have resources devoted to them is determined by
the system’s allocation policy. This policy is set by enduring dispositions and
momentary intentions.
• Enduring dispositions are tendencies for processing loud noise, sudden
motions, bright colors and other unusual events.
• Momentary intentions are situational dispositions to allocate cognitive
resources to a source of incoming stimulation.
 Assumptions of Capacity Model
• The interference produced by competing sources of stimulation is
nonspecific, i.e. any problems that we may have in doing two things at once
are not produced because the tasks interfere with each other but rather the
tasks require more resources than we have available.
• We will be able to do two things at once as long as these activities don’t
exceed the available resources.
• Performance on one task will decline if we try to do a second task
simultaneously when the sum total of processing demands exceeds the
capacity.
• Allocation policy is flexible and can be altered to suit the demands of the
incoming stimuli.
 Questions of Capacity Model
• Kahneman’s capacity model is designed to supplement rather than supplant
the bottleneck theories.
• Whereas the bottleneck theories postulates that incoming stimuli always
compete for space on the shunting channel and therefore always interfere
with each other, the capacity model assumes that the demands made by the
stimuli do not compete.
• As long as there are sufficient resources, the incoming stimuli can be
accommodated.
• One question that arises is about the interactions among stimuli: Do they
compete or don’t they?
• Another question is about the resources: What are they exactly? No one
knows the answer to this question with any certainty.
 Kahneman Capacity Models
• A capacity theory of attention provides an alternative to theories which
explain man's limitations by assuming the existence of structural bottlenecks.
• Instead of such bottlenecks, a capacity theory assumes that there is a
general limit on man's capacity to perform mental work.
• It also assumes that this limited capacity can be allocated with considerable
freedom among concurrent activities (Moray, 1967).
• A capacity theory is a theory of how one pays attention to objects and to
acts.
• Different mental activities impose different demands on the limited capacity.
• An easy task demands little effort, and a difficult task demands much.
• When the supply of attention does not meet the demands, performance
falters, or fails entirely.
 Kahneman Capacity Models
• According to the model, an activity can fail, either because there is
altogether not enough capacity to meet its demands or because the
allocation policy channels available capacity to other activities.
• In addition, of course, an action can fail because the input of relevant
information was insufficient. Thus, we may fail to detect or recognize a signal
because we were not paying attention to it.
• A capacity theory must deal with three central questions:
1. What makes an activity more or less demanding?
2. What factors control the total amount of capacity available at any time?
3. What are the rules of the allocation policy?
 Kahneman Capacity Models
• The two central elements of the model are the allocation policy and the
evaluation of demands on the limited capacity.
• The evaluation of demands is the governor system that causes capacity (or
effort) to be supplied, as needed by the activities that the allocation policy
has selected. The policy itself is controlled by four factors:
1. Enduring dispositions
2. Momentary intentions
3. The evaluation of demands
4. Effects of arousal
 Automaticity
• Automaticity is the ability to do things without occupying the mind with the
low-level details required, allowing it to become an automatic response
pattern or habit.
• It is usually the result of learning, repetition, and practice.
• A skill which can be performed reliably with minimal attention. It occurs
without intention. It doesn't give rise to conscious awareness of the process
being used to perform the skill and it doesn't interfere with other activities.
• Pluses of automaticity
• Allows people to perform multiple tasks at a time.
• Allows people to build complex skills.
• Minuses of automaticity
• Sometimes people can make careless mistakes.
• Sometimes people can miss details.
 Automaticity
• Hasher and Zacks (1979) comment that two pathways lead to automatic
processing: heredity and learning.
• Hasher and Zacks argue that physical activities and mental events share the
same pathways to automaticity.
• That is mental actions, such as those involved in perception and memory can
be treated as though they were similar to motor skills. The same sort of
repetition and drill that improve motor skills should also improve cognitive
skills.
• Schneider and Shiffrin show that complex but highly practiced perceptual
analyses can be done automatically. They also demonstrate that such
analyses will become automatic with practice even if they are not initially
done in that way.
• Schneider and Shiffrin define selective attention as "control of information
processing so that a sensory input is perceived or remembered better in one
situation than another".
• The concept of selective attention is based on the assumption that attention
resources are limited. That is, "It is because processing capacity is
overloaded in numerous situations that a subset of information arriving must
be given special attention".
• Two types of selective attention deficits are distinguished.
• First, divided-attention deficits occur when the subject must allocate
attention resources to additional inputs. Attempting to follow two
conversations at once illustrates this deficit.
• Second, focused-attention deficits occur when the subject is distracted by
irrelevant inputs, even though attention is directed to a particular input.
Attempting to listen to a conversation without distraction from other
conversations illustrates this deficit.
• Shiffrin and Schneider (1977) proposed a two-process theory of controlled
and automatic processing.
• Automatic process operates through a relatively permanent set of associative
connections in long-term store, any new automatic process requires an
appreciable amount of consistent training to develop fully.
• Furthermore, once learned, an automatic process is difficult to suppress, to
modify, or to ignore.
• In particular, when subjects in search tasks are consistently trained to
recognize certain inputs as targets, these inputs acquire the ability to initiate
automatic attention responses. These attention responses then direct
attention automatically to the target, regardless of concurrent inputs or
memory load, and enable a correct detection to occur.
• A controlled process is a temporary sequence of nodes activated under
control of, and through attention by, the subject.
• Controlled processing operations utilize short-term store, so that the nature
of their limitations is determined at least in part by the capacity limitations of
short-term store.
• Schneider and Shiffrin gave their subjects a set of letters or numbers that
they called a memory set and instructed them to determine if any element
on the memory set appeared on the slides that were presented for brief
periods.
• The set of slides varied in two ways. They might have one, two or four
characters printed on them - a factor called frame size. The relationship
between the characters on the slides and the memory set was the second
variable.
• In the varied mapping condition, the subject was given a memory set
consisting of one or more letters and all the characters to be searched were
also letters.
• In the consistent mapping condition, the subject was given a memory set
consisting of numbers and the elements to be searched were all letters
unless the memory set number appeared on one of the slides.
• After scanning the set of slides, the subject had to detect an element in the
memory set and respond yes, if no element in the memory set was present,
they were instructed to respond no.
• The findings of the study showed that subjects could quickly scan the slides in the
consistent mapping conditions and still maintain 95% accuracy. That is when
looking for a number among letters, the subjects required only 80msec per slide to
accurately process the information.
• In the varied mapping conditions, when looking for letters among other letters,
subjects required 200 msec to achieve the same accuracy.
• Schneider and Shiffrin reasoned that processing letters during the search for a
number is automatic, requiring no allocation of resources. Searching for a letter
among letters though is not automatic. This process is controlled and requires
attention.
• Looking for a number among letters, the recognition processes are automatic and
fast and the frame size should not affect the processing speed in consistent
mapping conditions.
• But frame size affect processing speed in consistent mapping condition as we are
looking for a letter among letters.
• Increase in frame size had little effect on subject’s processing time in consistent
mapping but similar changes produced substantial increase in processing speed in
varied mapping conditions.
Sustained Attention
 Sustained Attention
• Selective attention is the ability to select from many factors or stimuli and to
focus on only the one that you want while filtering out other distractions.
• Alternating attention is the ability to switch your focus back and forth between
tasks that require different cognitive demands.
• Divided attention is the ability to process two or more responses or react to two
or more different demands simultaneously. Divided attention is often referred
to as multitasking.
• Sustained attention is the ability to focus on one specific task for a continuous
amount of time without being distracted.
• Sustained attention is used when you need to focus on one specific task or
activity for a long period of time. E.g. playing a video game.
 Sustained Attention
• Sustained attention is the ability to focus on an activity or stimulus over a long period of
time.
• It is what makes it possible to concentrate on an activity for as long as it takes to finish,
even if there are other distracting stimuli present.
• Sustained attention is usually divided into vigilance (detecting the appearance of a
stimulus) and concentration (focusing on the stimulus or activity).
• This important cognitive skill helps us efficiently and successfully carry out tasks and
activities in our daily lives, especially those that take a long time to complete.
• Sustained attention is "the ability to direct and focus cognitive activity on specific stimuli."
In order to complete any cognitively planned activity, any sequenced action, or any
thought one must use sustained attention.
• An example is the act of reading a newspaper article. One must be able to focus on the
activity of reading long enough to complete the task. Problems occur when a distraction
arises. A distraction can interrupt and consequently interfere in sustained attention.
 Sustained Attention
• DeGangi and Porges (1990) indicate there are 3 stages to sustained attention which
include:
• attention getting,
• attention holding, and
• attention releasing.
• Sustained attention is important to psychologists because it is "a basic requirement for
information processing."
• Therefore, sustained attention is important for cognitive development. When a person
has difficulty sustaining attention, they often present with an accompanying inability to
adapt to environmental demands or modify behaviour (including inhibition of
inappropriate behaviour).
• Processes that enable sustained performance on tasks over extended periods of time.
Sustained attention is one of the primary elements or components processes of attention.
• It enables the maintenance of vigilance, selective and focused attention, response
persistence, and continuous effort despite changing conditions.
 Sustained Attention
• While selective attention is mainly concerned with the selection of stimuli,
sustained attention is concerned with concentration.
• It refers to our ability to maintain attention on an object or event for longer
durations.
• It is also known as “vigilance”. Sometimes people have to concentrate on a
particular task for many hours.
• Air traffic controllers and radar readers provide us with good examples of
this phenomenon.
• They have to constantly watch and monitor signals on screens.
• The occurrence of signals in such situations is usually unpredictable, and
errors in detecting signals may be fatal. Hence, a great deal of vigilance is
required in those situations.
 Factors Influencing Sustained Attention
• Several factors can facilitate or inhibit an individual’s performance on tasks of
sustained attention.
• Sensory modality is one of them. Performance is found to be superior when
the stimuli (called signals) are auditory than when they are visual.
• Clarity of stimuli is another factor. Intense and long lasting stimuli facilitate
sustained attention and result in better performance.
• Temporal uncertainty is a third factor. When stimuli appear at regular
intervals of time they are attended better than when they appear at irregular
intervals.
• Spatial uncertainty is a fourth factor. Stimuli that appear at a fixed place are
readily attended, whereas those that appear at random locations are difficult
to attend.
 Factors Influencing Sustained Attention
• Other factors include:
• Nature of Work
• Fatigue – If the brain is already fatigued, it is likely that that vigilance decrement
will occur more quickly.
• Personality – There is some research to suggest that certain personality traits
predispose someone to be better or worse at tasks requiring sustain attention.
For example, high scores in the extraversion factor resulted in poorer
performance on tasks requiring sustained attention.
• Stimulants – One of the earlier studies into managing the vigilance decrement
found that amphetamines delayed it and this effect was also seen with some
other stimulants such as caffeine and nicotine.
 Sustained Attention
• Our attention has a limited capacity to receive stimuli. The number of objects one can attend to at
a brief exposure (i.e. a fraction of a second) is called “span of attention” or “perceptual span”.
• More specifically, the span of attention refers to the amount of information an observer can grasp
from a complex array of stimuli at a single momentary exposure. This can be determined by the
use of an instrument, called “tachistoscope”.
• On the basis of several experiments, Miller has reported that our span of attention varies within
the limit of seven plus or minus two. This is popularly known as the “magic number”.
• It means that at a time, people can attend to a set of five to seven numbers, which can be
extended to nine or more under exceptional conditions.
• That is perhaps the reason why motorbikes or cars are given a number plate that contains only
four digit numbers with some alphabets. In case of violation of driving rules a traffic police can
easily read and note these numbers along with the alphabets.
• Attention has several practical implications. The number of objects one can readily attend to in a
single glance is used to design the number plates of motorbikes and cars so that the traffic police
can easily notice them in the case of traffic rule violations.
• A number of children fail to perform well in school simply due to the problem of attention.
 ADHD
• ADHD is a neurodevelopmental disorder affecting both children and adults.
• It is described as a “persistent” or on-going pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-
impulsivity that gets in the way of daily life or typical development.
• Individuals with ADHD may also have difficulties with maintaining attention, executive
function (or the brain’s ability to begin an activity, organize itself and manage tasks) and
working memory.
• There are three presentations of ADHD:
• Inattentive
• Hyperactive-impulsive
• Combined inattentive & hyperactive-impulsive
• Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is characterized by inattention,
hyperactivity and impulsivity. ADHD is most commonly diagnosed in young people,
according to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). An estimated 9% of
children between ages 3–17 have ADHD. While ADHD is usually diagnosed in childhood, it
does not only affect children. An estimated 4% of adults have ADHD.
 ADHD
• ADHD is referred to as hyperactivity which is characterized by
difficulties that interfere with effective task oriented behavior in
children – particularly impulsivity, excessive or exaggerated motor
activity such as aimless or haphazard running and difficulties in
sustaining attention.
• It is a common disorder of childhood.
• Children with ADHD may:
• Get distracted easily and forget things often
• Have social problems due to impulsivity and overactivity
 ADHD: DSM 5
• A persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interferes with
functioning or development, as characterized by (1) and/or (2):
1. Inattention: Six (or more) of the following symptoms have persisted for at least 6
months to a degree that is inconsistent with developmental level and that negatively
impacts directly on social and academic/occupational activities:
• Often fails to give close attention to details or makes careless mistakes in schoolwork,
at work, or during other activities (e.g., overlooks or misses details, work is
inaccurate).
• Often has difficulty sustaining attention in tasks or play activities (e.g., has difficulty
remaining focused during lectures, conversations, or lengthy reading).
• Often does not seem to listen when spoken to directly (e.g., mind seems elsewhere,
even in the absence of any obvious distraction).
• Often does not follow through on instructions and fails to finish schoolwork, chores,
or duties in the workplace (e.g., starts tasks but quickly loses focus and is easily
sidetracked).
 ADHD: DSM 5
• Often has difficulty organizing tasks and activities (e.g., difficulty managing
sequential tasks; difficulty keeping materials and belongings in order; messy,
disorganized work; has poor time management; fails to meet deadlines).
• Often avoids, dislikes, or is reluctant to engage in tasks that require sustained
mental effort (e.g., schoolwork or homework; for older adolescents and
adults, preparing reports, completing forms, reviewing lengthy papers)
• Often loses things necessary for tasks or activities (e.g., school materials,
pencils, books, tools, wallets, keys, paperwork, eyeglasses, mobile
telephones).
• Is often easily distracted by extraneous stimuli (for older adolescents and
adults, may include unrelated thoughts).
• Is often forgetful in daily activities (e.g., doing chores, running errands; for
older adolescents and adults, returning calls, paying bills, keeping
appointments).
 ADHD: DSM 5
2. Hyperactivity and impulsivity: Six (or more) of the following symptoms have persisted for
at least 6 months to a degree that is inconsistent with developmental level and that
negatively impacts directly on social and academic/occupational activities:
• Often fidgets with or taps hands or feet or squirms in seat.
• Often leaves seat in situations when remaining seated is expected (e.g., leaves his or her place in the
classroom, in the office or other workplace, or in other situations that require remaining in place).
• Often runs about or climbs in situations where it is inappropriate. (Note: In adolescents or adults, may be
limited to feeling restless.)
• Often unable to play or engage in leisure activities quietly.
• Is often “on the go,” acting as if “driven by a motor” (e.g., is unable to be or uncomfortable being still for
extended time, as in restaurants, meetings; may be experienced by others as being restless or difficult to
keep up with).
• Often talks excessively.
• Often blurts out an answer before a question has been completed (e.g., completes people’s sentences;
cannot wait for turn in conversation).
• Often has difficulty waiting his or her turn (e.g., while waiting in line).
• Often interrupts or intrudes on others (e.g., butts into conversations, games, or activities; may start using
other people’s things without asking or receiving permission; for adolescents and adults, may intrude into
or take over what others are doing).
 ADHD: DSM 5
• Several inattentive or hyperactive-impulsive symptoms were present prior
to age 12 years.
• Several inattentive or hyperactive-impulsive symptoms are present in two
or more settings (e.g., at home, school, or work; with friends or relatives;
in other activities).
• There is clear evidence that the symptoms interfere with, or reduce the
quality of, social, academic, or occupational functioning.
• The symptoms do not occur exclusively during the course of schizophrenia
or another psychotic disorder and are not better explained by another
mental disorder (e.g., mood disorder, anxiety disorder, dissociative
disorder, personality disorder, substance intoxication or withdrawal).
 ADHD: DSM 5
• The essential feature of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a
persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interferes
with functioning or development.
• Inattention manifests behaviorally in ADHD as wandering off task, lacking
persistence, having difficulty sustaining focus, and being disorganized and is not
due to defiance or lack of comprehension.
• Hyperactivity refers to excessive motor activity (such as a child running about)
when it is not appropriate, or excessive fidgeting, tapping, or talkativeness. In
adults, hyperactivity may manifest as extreme restlessness or wearing others
out with their activity.
• Impulsivity refers to hasty actions that occur in the moment without
forethought and that have high potential for harm to the individual (e.g., darting
into the street without looking). Impulsivity may reflect a desire for immediate
rewards or an inability to delay gratification. Impulsive behaviors may manifest
as social intrusiveness (e.g., interrupting others excessively) and/or as making
important decisions without consideration of long-term consequences (e.g.,
taking a job without adequate information).
 ADHD: DSM 5
• ADHD begins in childhood. The requirement that several symptoms be present
before age 12 years conveys the importance of a substantial clinical
presentation during childhood.
• At the same time, an earlier age at onset is not specified because of difficulties
in establishing precise childhood onset retrospectively. Adult recall of childhood
symptoms tends to be unreliable, and it is beneficial to obtain ancillary
information.
• Manifestations of the disorder must be present in more than one setting (e.g.,
home and school, work). Confirmation of substantial symptoms across settings
typically cannot be done accurately without consulting informants who have
seen the individual in those settings.
• Typically, symptoms vary depending on context within a given setting. Signs of
the disorder may be minimal or absent when the individual is receiving frequent
rewards for appropriate behavior, is under close supervision, is in a novel
setting, is engaged in especially interesting activities, has consistent external
stimulation (e.g., via electronic screens), or is interacting in one-on-one
situations (e.g., the clinician's office).
 ADHD
• Population surveys suggest that ADHD occurs in most cultures in about 5% of
children and about 2.5% of adults.
• Prevalence by Race
• White: 9.6%
• Black: 10.5%
• American Indian/Alaska Native: 6.4%
• Asian: 1.4%
• Multiple Race: 11.6%
 Etiology & Risk Factors of ADHD
• Current research suggests ADHD may be caused by interactions between
genes and environmental or non-genetic factors.
• Like many other illnesses, a number of factors may contribute to ADHD such
as:
• Genes
• Cigarette smoking, alcohol use, or drug use during pregnancy
• Exposure to environmental toxins, such as high levels of lead, at a young age
• Very low birth weight conveys a two-to-threefold risk for ADHD
• Brain injuries
• History of child abuse, neglect
• ADHD is elevated in the first-degree biological relatives of individuals with ADHD.
• Visual/hearing impairments, metabolic abnormalities, sleep disorders, nutritional
deficiencies, and epilepsy should be considered as possible influences on ADHD
symptoms.
 Warning Signs of ADHD
• People with ADHD show an ongoing pattern of three different types of
symptoms:
• Difficulty paying attention (inattention)
• Being overactive (hyperactivity)
• Acting without thinking (impulsivity)
 ADHD: Development and Courses
• May first observe excessive motor activity when the child is a toddler, but
symptoms are difficult to distinguish from highly variable normative
behaviors before age 4 years.
• In preschool, the main manifestation is hyperactivity.
• ADHD is most often identified during elementary school and inattention
becomes more prominent and impairing.
• The disorder is relatively stable through early adolescence, but some have
develop antisocial behaviors.
• In most with ADHD, symptoms of hyper-activity become less obvious but
difficulties with restlessness, inattention, poor planning, and impulsivity
persist.
• A substantial proportion of children with ADHD remain relatively impaired
into adulthood.
 Warning Signs of ADHD
• These symptoms get in the way of functioning or development. People who have ADHD have
combinations of these symptoms:
• Overlook or miss details, make careless mistakes in schoolwork, at work, or during other activities
• Have problems sustaining attention in tasks or play, including conversations, lectures, or lengthy
reading
• Seem to not listen when spoken to directly
• Fail to not follow through on instructions, fail to finish school work, chores, or duties in the
workplace, or start tasks but quickly lose focus and get easily sidetracked
• Have problems organizing tasks and activities, such as doing tasks in sequence, keeping materials
and belongings in order, keeping work organized, managing time, and meeting deadlines
• Avoid or dislike tasks that require sustained mental efforts, such as schoolwork or homework, or for
teens and older adults, preparing reports, completing forms, or reviewing lengthy papers
• Lose things necessary for tasks or activities, such as school supplies, pencils, books, tools, wallets,
keys, paper work, eyeglasses, and cell phones
• Become easily distracted by unrelated thoughts or stimuli
• Forgetful in daily activities, such as chores, errands, returning calls, and keeping appointments
 Warning Signs of ADHD
• Signs of hyperactivity and impulsivity may include:
• Fidgeting and squirming while seated
• Getting up and moving around in situations when staying seated is expected, such as in
the classroom or in the office
• Running or dashing around or climbing in situations where itis inappropriate, or, in teens
and adults, often feeling restless
• Being unable to play or engage in hobbies quietly
• Being constantly in motion or “on the go,” or acting as if “driven by a motor”
• Talking nonstop
• Blurting out an answer before a question has been completed, finishing other people’s
sentences, or speaking without waiting for a turn in conversation
• Having trouble waiting his or her turn
• Interrupting or intruding on others, for example in conversations, games, or activities
 Treatment of ADHD
• Although there is no cure for ADHD, currently available treatments may help reduce
symptoms and improve functioning.
• ADHD is commonly treated with medication, education or training, therapy, or a
combination of treatments.
• Medication: For many people, ADHD medications reduce hyperactivity and impulsivity
and improve their ability to focus, work, and learn. The first line of treatment for ADHD is
stimulants.
• Therapy: There are different kinds of therapy that have been tried for ADHD, but research
shows that therapy may not be effective in treating ADHD symptoms. However, adding
therapy to an ADHD treatment plan may help patients and families better cope with daily
challenges.
• Education and Training: Children and adults with ADHD need guidance and understanding
from their parents, families, and teachers to reach their full potential and to succeed.
Mental health professionals can educate the parents of a child with ADHD about the
condition and how it affects a family. They can also help the child and his or her parents
develop new skills, attitudes, and ways of relating to each other.
 Pattern Recognition
• Pattern recognition describes a cognitive process that matches information from
a stimulus with information retrieved from memory.
• Pattern recognition occurs when information from the environment is received and
entered into short-term memory, causing automatic activation of a specific content
of long-term memory.
• The process of pattern recognition involves matching the information received with the
information already stored in the brain. Making the connection between memories and
information perceived is a step of pattern recognition called identification.
• Pattern recognition requires repetition of experience. Semantic memory, which is used
implicitly and subconsciously is the main type of memory involved with recognition.
• Pattern recognition allows us to read words, understand language, recognize friends, and
even appreciate music.
• Facial, music and language recognition, and seriation (the ability to sort objects or
situations according to any characteristic, such as size, color, shape, or type) are a few of
such domains. Facial recognition and seriation occur through encoding visual patterns,
while music and language recognition use the encoding of auditory patterns.
 Pattern Recognition
• It is also called object recognition. Our ability to recognize familiar
type of things is a spectacular human characteristics.
• Pattern recognition involves a complex interaction between
sensation, perception, STM, LTM, and cognitive search for
identification of stimuli.
• There are six main theories of pattern recognition:
• Template matching,
• Prototype-matching,
• Feature analysis,
• Bottom-up and top-down processing,
• Recognition-by-components theory, and
• Fourier analysis
 Template Matching
• Template matching theory describes the most basic approach to human
pattern recognition.
• It is a theory that assumes every perceived object is stored as a "template"
into long-term memory.
• Incoming information is compared to these templates to find an exact match.
• In other words, all sensory input is compared to multiple representations of
an object to form one single conceptual understanding.
• The theory defines perception as a fundamentally recognition-based
process. It assumes that everything we see, we understand only through past
exposure, which then informs our future perception of the external world.
• For example, A, A, and A are all recognized as the letter A, but not B. This
viewpoint is limited, however, in explaining how new experiences can be
understood without being compared to an internal memory template.
 Prototype Matching
• Unlike the exact, one-to-one, template matching theory, prototype matching instead
compares incoming sensory input to one average prototype.
• This theory proposes that exposure to a series of related stimuli leads to the creation of a
"typical" prototype based on their shared features.
• It reduces the number of stored templates by standardizing them into a single
representation.
• The prototype supports perceptual flexibility, because unlike in template matching, it
allows for variability in the recognition of novel stimuli.
• For instance, if a child had never seen a lawn chair before, they would still be able to
recognize it as a chair because of their understanding of its essential characteristics as
having four legs and a seat. This idea, however, limits the conceptualization of objects
that cannot necessarily be "averaged" into one, like types of canines, for instance.
• Even though dogs, wolves, and foxes are all typically furry, four-legged, moderately sized
animals with ears and a tail, they are not all the same, and thus cannot be strictly
perceived with respect to the prototype matching theory.
 Feature Analysis
• Multiple theories try to explain how humans are able to recognize patterns in their
environment.
• Feature detection theory proposes that the nervous system sorts and filters
incoming stimuli to allow the human (or animal) to make sense of the information.
• In the organism, this system is made up of feature detectors, which are individual
neurons, or groups of neurons, that encode specific perceptual features.
• The theory proposes an increasing complexity in the relationship between
detectors and the perceptual feature.
• The most basic feature detectors respond to simple properties of the stimuli.
Further along the perceptual pathway, higher organized feature detectors are able
to respond to more complex and specific stimuli properties.
• When features repeat or occur in a meaningful sequence, we are able to identify
these patterns because of our feature detection system.
 Top Down Processing
• Top-down processing refers to the use of background information in pattern recognition.
• It always begins with a person’s previous knowledge, and makes predictions due to this
already acquired knowledge.
• Psychologist Richard Gregory estimated that about 90% of the information is lost between
the time it takes to go from the eye to the brain, which is why the brain must guess what
the person sees based on past experiences.
• In other words, we construct our perception of reality, and these perceptions are
hypotheses or propositions based on past experiences and stored information.
• The formation of incorrect propositions will lead to errors of perception such as visual
illusions.
• Given a paragraph written with difficult handwriting, it is easier to understand what the
writer wants to convey if one reads the whole paragraph rather than reading the words in
separate terms.
• The brain may be able to perceive and understand the gist of the paragraph due to the
context supplied by the surrounding words.
 Bottom Up Processing
• Bottom-up processing is also known as data-driven processing, because it
originates with the stimulation of the sensory receptors.
• Psychologist James Gibson opposed the top-down model and argued that
perception is direct, and not subject to hypothesis testing as Gregory proposed.
• He stated that sensation is perception and there is no need for extra
interpretation, as there is enough information in our environment to make
sense of the world in a direct way.
• His theory is sometimes known as the "ecological theory" because of the claim
that perception can be explained solely in terms of the environment.
• An example of bottom up-processing involves presenting a flower at the center
of a person's field. The sight of the flower and all the information about the
stimulus are carried from the retina to the visual cortex in the brain. The signal
travels in one direction.
Thank You