Post Graduate Diploma in Environmental Management (PGDEM)

Paper -III ENVIRONMENTAL

POLLUTION, ENVIRONMENT AND
HUMAN HEALTH

Unit - 5 : Part –I ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION,

Part-II E NVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH

EPCO INSTITUTE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

EPCO Paryavaran Parisar, E-5 Arera Colony, Bhopal 462016 (M.P.)
Tel. 2466970, 2464318, 2466859 Fax: (0755)-2462136
Website www.epco.in email: [email protected] , [email protected]
 Paper - III
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION, ENVIRONMENT & HUMAN HEALTH

S.NO. CONTENT PAGE

Unit - 5 : PART –I
ENVIRONMENTAL P OLLUTION
1 Introduction 4

2 Definition of Pollution 4

3 Buildup of Pollution in the Environment 7

4 Types of Pollution 9

5 Air Pollution 10

6 Water Pollution 16

7 Land Pollution 27

8 Noise pollution 29

9 Pollution by Radioactivity 32

UNIT-5 : PART- II
HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENT
2.1 Introduction to environment and health 35

2.2 Health effects of toxic chemicals 36

2.3 Health problem due to air pollution 37

2.4 Water pollution and health 41

2.5 Soil pollution and health 45

2.6 Radioactive pollutants 48

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2.7 Noise pollution and human health 51

2.8 Food contamination and health 54

2.9 Urban wastes 54

2.10 Occupation and health 56

2.11 Stress and health 60

2.12 Malnutrition 61

2.13 Extreme events 62

2.14 Disease vectors 63

2.15 Ground level ozone 64

2.16 Cold waves 64

2.17 Activities 65

2.18 Let us sum-up 66

2.19 Further Reading 67

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 UNIT- 9 : ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION, ENVIRONMENT & HUMAN HEALTH
Part – I : ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit you should be able to:

Define pollution and pollutants.

Identify and list various types of pollutants that

contaminate our air, water and soil.

Explain the critical importance of a temperature range

for the living organisms.

Comprehend and trace the pathways of major

pollutants in the ecosystem.

Enumerate the reasons of high noise levels in the

urban areas.

Discuss the hazardous effects of radiations and the

need for safeguards to prevent accidental release of

radioactivity.

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 1. INTRODUCTION

In this unit ‘pollution’ and its effect on the environment are the topics of discussion.
Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into a natural environment (which is made up of
air, water and soil) that causes instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to the ecosystem i.e.
physical systems or living organisms. Environmental pollution had been a fact of life for
many centuries but it became a real problem since the start of the industrial revolution. In the
preceding units you have studied about the concept of environment and earth’s resources
available for meeting the basic requirements and developmental needs of ever-growing
human population. Unmindful use of resources and energy intensive technologies that
generate lot of wastes have resulted in degraded and polluted environment. Eventually none
of us can escape from direct and indirect encounters with pollutants as pollution created in
air, water or soil are ultimately bound to become global as it has one continuous environment.

2. DEFINITION OF POLLUTION
We live in a world where most of us face perpetually daily the hazards of pollution. Pollution
is the introduction of a contaminant into the environment. It is created mostly by human
actions, but can also be a result of natural disasters. Pollution has a detrimental effect on any
living organism in an environment, making it virtually impossible to sustain life. In other
words, pollution is the contamination of air, soil, or water by the discharge of harmful
substances into the environment, adversely affecting life and life support system.
Pollution is often classed as point source or non-point source pollution. The Blacksmith
Institute issues annually a list of the world's worst polluted places. In the 2007 issues the ten
top nominees are located in Azerbaijan, China, India, Peru, Russia, Ukraine, and Zambia.
Nonpoint source (NPS) pollution refers to both water and air pollution from diffuse sources
that discharge pollutants over a large area. The most common nonpoint-source pollutants are
sediments, nutrients, microorganisms and toxins. Nonpoint source water pollution affects a
water body from sources such as polluted runoff from agricultural areas draining into a river,
or wind-borne debris blowing out to sea. Nonpoint source air pollution affects air quality
from sources such as smokestacks or car tailpipes. Although these pollutants have originated
from a point source, the long-range transport ability and multiple sources of the pollutant
make it a nonpoint source of pollution. Nonpoint source pollution can be contrasted with
point source pollution, where discharges occur to a body of water or into the atmosphere at

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a single location like through a chimney or pipes or tunnels from industrial or municipal
areas. A pictorial representation of point and non point source of pollution are given as under:

Figure 1.1: Point and non-point sources of pollution

Any substance which causes pollution is called a Pollutant. A pollutant is a waste material
that pollutes air, water or soil, and is the cause of pollution. Three factors determine the
severity of a pollutant: its chemical nature, its concentration and its persistence. A normal
constituent of the environment becomes pollutant if its concentration increases beyond the
limits, destroying its usefulness. A pollutant is also a new substance (biotic or abiotic) or
energy (heat, sound or radioactivity) that builds up to a level where its usefulness is damaged.
Pollutants are grouped into two broad categories:
1. Nondegradable Pollutants: A pollutant that is not broken down by natural processes.
Non biodegradable pollutants can also be defined as an organic compound, usually
synthetic, that is not decomposed or mineralized by microorganisms or other
biological processes. Some nondegradable pollutants, like the heavy metals, rubber,
pesticides, nuclear wastes etc. create problems because they are toxic and persistent
in the environment. Others, like synthetic plastics, are a problem because of their
sheer volume. These pollutants biomagnifies to dangerous levels when they move in
material cycles in the nature and along the food chain.
2. Biodegradable Pollutants: These are potentially polluting chemicals that are broken
down completely or reduced to acceptable levels by natural physical, chemical, and
biological processes. Biodegradable waste can be commonly found in municipal solid

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 waste (sometimes called biodegradable municipal waste, or BMW) as green waste,
food waste, paper waste, and biodegradable plastics. Other biodegradable wastes
include human waste, manure, sewage, slaughterhouse waste. In the absence of
oxygen much of this waste will decay to methane by anaerobic digestion
Pollutants may have different kinds of effects on humans as well as on other components of
biosphere. The degradation of the environment has resulted in increase in disease, reduction
of the average life spans and growth in infant mortality rates. Civilization appears to have
gone berserk and the future of planet earth has never been in greater jeopardy than it is today.
The rapid growing population and economic development is leading to a number of
environmental issues in India because of the uncontrolled growth of urbanization and
industrialization, expansion and massive intensification of agriculture, and the destruction of
forests.
Major environmental issues are forest and agricultural land degradation, resource depletion
(water, mineral, forest, sand, rocks etc.), environmental degradation, public health, loss of
biodiversity, loss of resilience in ecosystems, livelihood security for the poor.

3. BUILD UP OF POLLUTION IN THE ENVIORNMENT

It was the industrial revolution that gave birth to environmental pollution as we know it
today. The emergence of great factories and consumption of immense quantities of coal and
other fossil fuels gave rise to unprecedented air pollution and the large volume of industrial
chemical discharges added to the growing load of untreated human waste. Population growth
and economic development are contributing too many serious environmental calamities in
India. These include heavy pressure on land, land degradation, forests, habitat destruction and
loss of biodiversity. Changing consumption pattern has led to rising demand for energy. The
final outcomes of this are air pollution, global warming, climate change, water scarcity and
water pollution.
In the last fifty years, industrialization has resulted in an increasing trend in the usage and
builds up of resources that have affected the environment.
As the tempo of industrial and agricultural activities increase around the world, and as human
populations continue to grow, (particularly in the world's poorer communities) so the number
of children exposed to environmental pollutants increases. Various studies show that people
spend 65 to 90 percent of their time indoors; 65 percent of that time is spent at home. Field
studies of human exposure to air pollutants indicate that indoor air levels of many pollutants
may be two to five times and on occasion more than one hundred times, higher than outdoor

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levels. Our resource consumption strategies and living styles have compelled us to live in a
polluted environment, be it indoors or outdoors.
Table 1.2 illustrates some examples of usage sources that lead to indoor and outdoor
pollution.
SOURCES POLLUTANTS
Predominantly Indoor
Particle board, foam insulation, Formaldehyde
furnishing, ceiling tiles, tobacco
smoke
Building material-concrete, stone, Radon
water, soil
Fire proofing, thermal and electrical Asbestos, mineral wools, synthetic fibres
insulation, acoustic Organic substances, nicotine, aerosol,

Adhesives, solvents, paints, volatile organics

varnishes, cooking, cosmetics. Mercury, cadmium

Pesticides in paints, spills in labs,

sprays. Aerosols, allergens, microorganism

Consumer products, house dust,

animal debris, infected organism

Predominantly Outdoor
Coal and oil combustion, smelters, Sulphur oxides
fires
Photochemical reaction Ozone
Automobiles, smelters Lead, manganese

Soil particulates and industrial Calcium, chlorine, silicon, cadmium

emissions
Petrochemical solvents, vaporization Organic substances
of unburnt fuels
Indoor and Outdoor
Fuel combustion, Nitrogen Oxides
Incomplete fuel combustion Carbon monoxide
Carbon dioxide

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 Fossil fuel combustion Suspended particulate matter
Resuspension, condensation of
vapours, combustion products Organic substances, heavy metals
Petroleum products, combustion,
paint, metabolic action, pesticides,
insecticides, fungicides
Cleaning products, agriculture, Ammonia
metabolic products

4. TYPES OF POLLUTION
The major forms of pollution are listed below along with the particular pollutants relevant to
each of them:
Air pollution: It is the release of chemicals and particulates into the atmosphere.
Common gaseous air pollutants include carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide,
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and nitrogen oxides produced by industry and motor
vehicles. Photochemical ozone and smog are created as nitrogen oxides and
hydrocarbons react to sunlight. Particulate matter, or fine dust is characterized by their
micrometer size PM10 to PM2.5.
Water pollution: It occurs by the discharge of wastewater from commercial and
industrial waste (intentionally or through spills) into surface waters; discharges of
untreated domestic sewage, and chemical contaminants, such as chlorine, from treated
sewage; release of waste and contaminants into surface runoff flowing to surface
waters (including urban runoff and agricultural runoff, which may contain chemical
fertilizers and pesticides); waste disposal and leaching into groundwater;
eutrophication and littering. Thermal pollution is a temperature change in natural
water bodies caused by human influence, such as use of water as coolant in a power
plant.
Soil contamination: It occurs when chemicals are released intentionally, by spill or
underground leakage. Among the most significant soil contaminants are
hydrocarbons, heavy metals, MTBE,[9] herbicides, pesticides and chlorinated
hydrocarbons.

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 Noise pollution: Noise pollution is which encompasses roadway noise, aircraft noise,
industrial noise as well as high-intensity sonar.
Light pollution: includes light trespass, over-illumination and astronomical
interference.
Radioactive contamination resulting from 20th century activities in atomic physics,
such as nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons research, manufacture and
deployment. (See alpha emitters and actinides in the environment.)
Visual pollution, which can refer to the presence of overhead power lines, motorway
billboards, scarred landforms (as from strip mining), open storage of trash or
municipal solid waste.

5. AIR POLLUTION:
Has it ever occurred to you that air is as much a resource as water and food? To stay alive the
average adult human being exchanges about six times more amount of gases per day as
compared to daily consumption of food and water. This is the reason that air quality is
important to us. Any significant change in the normal composition of air is harmful. Carbon
di oxide is the essential requirement in the environment of green plants to make their food.
However, if its concentration increases beyond the limits, the air becomes polluted and toxic.
One of the biggest causes of air pollution in India is from the transport system. Of course the
biggest problems are in the big cities where there are huge concentrations of these vehicles.
Air pollution produced by ships may alter clouds, affecting global temperatures. Air
pollution comes from both natural and manmade sources.
5.1 Types of Air Pollutants
Broadly air pollutants can be categorised into following groups

1. Natural Pollutants: These pollutants are released from the natural sources or as a
result of natural activity. Some examples are: pollen and volatile organic
compounds from plants; gases like suphur di oxide, hydrogen sulphide etc. From
volcanic eruptions and decay of organic materials; particles from wild fire and
sea; natural radioactivity etc. In general natural emissions are low in concentration
and do not tend to cause serious damage.
2. Primary Pollutants: These pollutants are emitted directly into the air as a result
of natural or human activity. Examples include sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides,

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 carbon di oxide, carbon mono oxide, hydrocarbons and particulates released from
fuel burning.
3. Secondary Pollutants: Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they
form in the air when primary pollutants react or interact. Secondary pollutants are
produced as a result of chemical reactions between primary pollutants and normal
atmospheric compounds under the influence of electromagnetic radiations from
the sun. For example, the primary pollutant sulphur dioxide (SO2), reacts with
oxygen (O2) in the atmosphere to form sulphur trioxide (SO3), a secondary
pollutant. An important example of a secondary pollutant is ground level ozone —
one of the many secondary pollutants that make up photochemical smog.
5.2 Major Air Pollutants
Air pollutants that are produced in significant amounts and adversely affect human health and
the environment are major air pollutants. Every year over a billion metric tons of the
pollutants are released into the atmosphere from human related processes. If these pollutants
were to be uniformly distributed in the atmosphere the concentration would be very little, a
few parts per million (ppm) by weight. Big cities are polluted because of large population,
industries and weather conditions.
Major primary pollutants produced by human activity include:
Sulfur oxides (SOx) - especially sulphur dioxide. SO2 is produced by volcanoes and in
various industrial processes. Since coal and petroleum often contain sulphur
compounds, their combustion generates sulfur dioxide. Further oxidation of SO2,
usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4, and thus acid rain.
This is one of the causes for concern over the environmental impact of the use of
these fuels as power sources.
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) - especially nitrogen dioxide are emitted from high
temperature combustion. Can be seen as the brown haze dome above or plume
downwind of cities. NO2 is one of the most prominent air pollutants.
Carbon monoxide - It is a product by incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural
gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust is a major source of carbon monoxide.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) – it is a non-toxic greenhouse gas associated with ocean
acidification, emitted from sources such as combustion, cement production, and
respiration
Volatile organic compounds - VOCs are an important outdoor air pollutant. In this
field they are often divided into the separate categories of methane (CH4) and non-

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 methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely efficient greenhouse gas which
contributes to enhanced global warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also
significant greenhouse gases via their role in creating ozone and in prolonging the life
of methane in the atmosphere, although the effect varies depending on local air
quality. Within the NMVOCs, the aromatic compounds benzene, toluene and xylene
are suspected carcinogens and may lead to leukemia through prolonged exposure. 1,3-
butadiene is another dangerous compound which is often associated with industrial
uses.
Particulate matter - Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM) or
fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. In contrast,
aerosol refers to particles and the gas together. Sources of particulate matter can be
man made or natural. Some particulates occur naturally, originating from volcanoes,
dust storms, forest and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. Human
activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various
industrial processes also generate significant amounts of aerosols. Increased levels of
fine particles in the air are linked to health hazards such as heart disease, altered lung
function and lung cancer.
Persistent free radicals connected to airborne fine particles could cause
cardiopulmonary disease.
Toxic metals, such as lead, cadmium and copper.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - harmful to the ozone layer emitted from products
currently banned from use.
Ammonia (NH3) - emitted from agricultural processes. Ammonia contributes
significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor
to foodstuffs and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a building
block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use, ammonia is
both caustic and hazardous.
Odours — such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes
Radioactive pollutants - produced by nuclear explosions, war explosives, and natural
processes such as the radioactive decay of radon.
Secondary pollutants include:
Particulate matter formed from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds in
photochemical smog. Smog is a kind of air pollution; the word "smog" is a
portmanteau of smoke and fog. Classic smog results from large amounts of coal

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 burning in an area caused by a mixture of smoke and sulphur dioxide. Modern smog
does not usually come from coal but from vehicular and industrial emissions that are
acted on in the atmosphere by ultraviolet light from the sun to form secondary
pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog.
Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs. Ozone (O3) is a key
constituent of the troposphere. It is also an important constituent of certain regions of
the stratosphere commonly known as the Ozone layer. Photochemical and chemical
reactions involving it drive many of the chemical processes that occur in the
atmosphere by day and by night. At abnormally high concentrations brought about by
human activities (largely the combustion of fossil fuel), it is a pollutant, and a
constituent of smog.
Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) - similarly formed from NOx and VOCs.
Sources of air pollution refer to the various locations, activities or factors which are
responsible for the releasing of pollutants into the atmosphere. These sources can be
classified into two major categories which are:
Anthropogenic sources (human activity) mostly related to burning different kinds of fuel
"Stationary Sources" include smoke stacks of power plants, manufacturing facilities
(factories) and waste incinerators, as well as furnaces and other types of fuel-burning
heating devices
"Mobile Sources" include motor vehicles, marine vessels, aircraft and the effect of
sound etc.
Chemicals, dust and controlled burn practices in agriculture and forestry management.
Controlled or prescribed burning is a technique sometimes used in forest
management, farming, prairie restoration or greenhouse gas abatement. Fire is a
natural part of both forest and grassland ecology and controlled fire can be a tool for
foresters. Controlled burning stimulates the germination of some desirable forest
trees, thus renewing the forest.
Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and other solvents
Waste deposition in landfills generates methane. Methane is not toxic; however, it is highly
flammable and may form explosive mixtures with air. Methane is also an asphyxiant and may
displace oxygen in an enclosed space. Asphyxia or suffocation may result if the oxygen
concentration is reduced to below 19.5% by displacement
Military, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare and rocketry

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Below, the different types and sources of air pollution are depicted in pictorial form in
Fig: 1.2

Figure 1.2: Types and sources of air pollutants

5.3 Air Pollution and Atmospheric problems
Apart from causing damage to materials, plant and animal communities and health problems
in humans, air pollution affects the atmospheric processes. Different causes and effects of air
pollution are as under:
(1) Greenhouse effect, (2) particulate contamination, (3) increased UV radiation, (4) acid
rain, (5) increased ground level ozone concentration, (6) increased levels of nitrogen oxides.
Later in the course you will read about pollution problems at global level in detail.
Various standards are developed by countries to keep a check on air pollution and to maintain
the air quality. The Pollutant Standard Index (PSI) is a measure of concentrations of
pollutants in the air, in parts per million. It was developed by the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) in conjunction with the South Coast Air Quality Management District of El
Monte, California. PSI measurements are used to inform the public about potential health
effects due to air quality. They have been in use nationwide since 1978.
As it is next to impossible to have air san pollution anywhere, Indian government have
sanctioned ambient air quality standards and declared permissible levels of pollutants in the
air according to areas i.e. industrial, residential or sensitive area. Table 1.2 depicts the
national ambient air quality standards.

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Table 1.2 National Ambient Air Quality Standards*
Concentration in Ambient Air
Time Weighted
Pollutant Residential,
Average Industrial Area Sensitive Area
Rural and other

Sulphur Dioxide Annual 80 µ g/m3 60 µ g/m3 15 µ g/m3

(SO2) 24 hours 120 µ g/m3 80 µ g/m3 30 µ g/m3

Oxides of Annual 80 µ g/m3 60 µ g/m3 15 µ g/m3

Nitrogen (NO2) 24 hours 120 µ g/m3 80 µ g/m3 30 µ g/m3

Suspended
Annual 360 µ g/m3 140 µ g/m3 70 µ g/m3
Particulate
24 hours 500 µ g/m3 200 µ g/m3 100 µ g/m3
Matter (SPM)

Respirable **
Annual 120 µ g/m3 60 µ g/m3 50 µ g/m3
Particulate
24 hours 150 µ g/m3 100 µ g/m3 75 µ g/m3
Matter (RPM)

Annual µ g/m3 0.75 µ g/m3 0.50 µ g/m3

Lead (pb)
24 hours 1.5 µ g/m3 1.00 µ g/m3 0.75 µ g/m3

Carbon 8 hours 5.0 µ g/m3 2.0 µ g/m3 1.0 µ g/m3

Monoxide(CO) 1 hour 10.0 µ g/m3 4.0 µ g/m3 2.0 µ g/m3
Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India notification, 1994
** Particle size less than 10 µ m
Similarly, emissions from vehicles are also a major cause of pollution. So, to check these
emissions, Indian emission standard were brought into action. The first Indian emission
regulations were idle emission limits which became effective in 1989. These idle emission
regulations were soon replaced by mass emission limits for both petrol (1991) and diesel
(1992) vehicles, which were gradually tightened during the 1990s. Since the year 2000, India
started adopting European emission and fuel regulations for four-wheeled light-duty and for
heavy-dc. Indian own emission regulations still apply to two- and three-wheeled vehicles.
Current requirement is that all transport vehicles carry a fitness certificate that is renewed
each year after the first two years of new vehicle registration.

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6. WATER POLLUTION
Water pollution occurs when a body of water is adversely affected due to the addition of large
amounts of materials to the water leading to physical, biological or chemical changes that
degrades the water quality. Water being a universal solvent can dissolve various types of
substances in it. Polluted water is a threat to our health and survival of aquatic life and other
life forms. The sources of water pollution are categorized as being a point source or a non-
source point of pollution. The major human generated sources of water pollution are sewage,
garbage and refuse, industrial and agricultural wastes. Pollution can also be the consequence
of a natural disaster. For example, hurricanes often involve water contamination from
sewage, and petrochemical spills from ruptured boats or automobiles. Larger scale and
environmental damage is not uncommon when coastal oil rigs or refineries are involved.
Some sources of pollution, such as nuclear power plants or oil tankers, can produce
widespread and potentially hazardous releases when accidents occur.
6.1 Types of Water Pollution
Many types of pollution affect the immediate area surrounding the source. When the
pollution affects the environment many miles away from the source, like nuclear waste, it is
called trans-boundary pollution.
Surface Water Pollution
These are the natural water resources of the Earth. These are found on the exterior of the
Earth's crust, oceans, rivers and lakes.
Groundwater Pollution
Considerable amount of Earth's water is found in soil or under rock structures called aquifers.
People use aquifers to obtain drinking water and build wells to access it. In case this water
becomes polluted, it is called groundwater pollution. This is caused by pesticide
contamination from the soil and this can infect the drinking water and lead to huge problems.
Microbiological Pollution
This is a natural form of water pollution caused by microorganisms. Most of these
microorganisms thrive in water and fish, land animals and humans to become ill.
Microorganism like bacteria, viruses and protozoa cause serious diseases like cholera. In poor
countries, there are no facilities to treat polluted water and hence the health of people is
affected.

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Oxygen depletion Pollution
Microorganisms that thrive in water feed on biodegradable substances. When a lot of
biodegradable material is mixed with water, the number of microorganism increase and
utilize the available oxygen. This called oxygen depletion. As oxygen levels in water are
depleted, harmless aerobic microorganisms die and anaerobic microorganism prosper. Some
anaerobic microorganisms are harmful to people, environment and animals and they produce
toxins like ammonia and sulfides.
Nutrients
These are necessary for plant growth and development. Most of these are found in
wastewater and fertilizers. These can cause excess weed and algae growth if there are large
concentrations in water. Drinking water and clog filters can be contaminated. The algae use
up the oxygen in the water and leave none for the surrounding marine life and this can
damage other aquatic organisms
Suspended Matter
As the molecules are very large to mix between the water molecules, some pollutants do not
dissolve in water. This material is termed as particulate matter and can lead to water
pollution. The suspended particles finally settle and form a thick silt at the bottom. The
marine life on the floor of rivers and lakes are harmed. Biodegradable substances are
suspended in water and raise the quantity of anaerobic microorganisms present. The toxic
chemicals that are suspended in water are harmful to the development and survival of aquatic
life.
Chemical
Agricultural and Industrial work has the use of many chemicals that can run-off into water
and pollute it. Metals and solvents from industrial work pollute rivers and lakes. Aquatic life
is endangered by these and made infertile. Pesticides are used to control weeds, insects and
fungi. Run-off's of these pesticides poisons aquatic life. If birds, humans and other animals
eat infected fish they may be poisoned. Petroleum is a different type of chemical pollutant
that pollutes water by oil spills in case a ship ruptures. Oil spills have a localized affect on
wildlife, but can spread for miles. This oil can affect the death of many fish and stick to the
feathers of seabirds. This loses their ability to fly.
Pollution happens when silt and other suspended solids like soil, construction, wash off
plowed fields enter river banks. Eutrophication occurs under natural conditions, lakes, rivers
and other water bodies. This is an aging process that fills in the water body with sediment and

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organic matter. In case these sediments enter various water bodies, fish respiration is
affected; plant productivity and water depth is decreased..

Fig 1.3 Day to day human activities that cause human pollution

6.2 Specific Sources of Water Pollution

Farming:
Farms often use large amounts of herbicides and pesticides, both of which are toxic
pollutants. These substances are particularly dangerous to life in rivers, streams and
lakes, where toxic substances can build up over a period of time.
Farms also frequently use large amounts of chemical fertilizers that are washed into
the waterways and damage the water supply and the life within it. Fertilizers can
increase the amounts of nitrates and phosphates in the water, which can lead to the
process of eutrophication.
Allowing livestock to graze near water sources often results in organic waste products
being washed into the waterways. This sudden introduction of organic material
increaces the amount of nitrogen in the water, and can also lead to eutrophication.

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 Four hundred million tons of soil are carried by the Mississippi River to the Gulf of
Mexico each year. A great deal of this siltation is due to runoff from the exposed soil
of agricultural fields. Excessive amounts of sediment in waterways can block
sunlight, preventing aquatic plants from photosynthesizing, and can suffocate fish by
clogging their gills.
Business:
Clearing of land can lead to erosion of soil into the river.
Waste and sewage generated by industry can get into the water supply, introducing
large organic pollutants into the ecosystem.
Many industrial and power plants use rivers, streams and lakes to dispose of waste
heat. The resulting hot water can cause thermal pollution. Thermal pollution can have
a disastrous effect on life in an aquatic ecosystem as temperature increases decrease
the amount of oxygen in the water, thereby reducing the number of animals that can
survive there.
Water can become contaminated with toxic or radioactive materials from industry,
mine sites and abandoned hazardous waste sites.
Acid precipitation is caused when the burning of fossil fuels emits sulphur dioxide
into the atmosphere. The sulphur dioxide reacts with the water in the atmosphere,
creating rainfall which contains sulphuric acid. As acid precipitation falls into lakes,
streams and ponds it can lower the overall pH of the waterway, killing vital plant life,
thereby affecting the whole food chain. It can also leach heavy metals from the soil
into the water, killing fish and other aquatic organisms. Because of this, air pollution
is potentially one of the most threatening forms of pollution to aquatic ecosystems.
Homes:
Sewage generated by houses or runoff from septic tanks into nearby waterways,
introduce organic pollutants that can cause eutrophication.
Fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides used for lawn care can runoff and contaminate
the waterway. As with agricultural fertilizers, home fertilizers can lead to the
eutrophication of lakes and rivers.
Improper disposal of hazardous chemicals down the drain introduce toxic materials
into to the ecosystem, contaminating the water supplies in a way that can harm
aquatic organisms.
Leaks of oil and antifreeze from a car on a driveway can be washed off

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All segments of our society (urban, rural, industrial, and agricultural) may contribute to water
pollution problems. Various processes and material pollute the fresh water bodies-the surface
water and ground water. Most of the sources of ground water pollution results from run
offs, leaks and seepage of pollutants.
Surface Water.
The most common point-source pollutants in surface water are:
High-temperature discharges;
Microorganisms (such as bacteria, viruses, and Giardia ); and
Nutrients (such as nitrogen and phosphorus).
Temperature increases and nutrients can result in excessive plant growth and subsequent
decaying organic matter in water that depletes dissolved oxygen levels and consequently
stressing or killing vulnerable aquatic life. Microorganisms can be hazardous to both human
health and aquatic life. Pesticides and other toxic substances can also be hazardous to both
human health and aquatic life, but are less commonly found in surface water because of high
dilution rates.
Nonpoint-source pollution occurs as water moves across the land or through the ground and
picks up natural and human-made pollutants, which can then be deposited in lakes, rivers,
wetlands, coastal waters, and even groundwater. The water that carries nonpoint-source
pollution may originate from natural processes such as rainfall or snowmelt, or from human
activities such as crop irrigation or lawn maintenance.
Nonpoint-source pollution is usually found spread out throughout a large area. It is often
difficult to trace the exact origin of these pollutants because they result from a wide variety of
human activities on the land as well as natural characteristics of the soil, climate, and
topography .
The most common nonpoint-source pollutants are sediment, nutrients, microorganisms and
toxics. Sediment can degrade water quality by contaminating drinking water supplies or
silting in spawning grounds for fish and aquatic life. This silt-laden runoff from a residential
area contains not only soil and clay particles from nearby construction, but also is likely to
contain small amounts of lawn chemicals, oil, grease, gasoline, and even residues from recent
highway de-icing. These are all examples of pollutants released from nonpoint sources.
Ground water.
Some of the most persistent point-source pollutants in groundwater are volatile organic
compounds, which include manufactured and refined toxic substances such as solvents, oils,
paint, and fuel products. In general, it takes only a small amount of these chemicals to raise

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health concerns. For example, approximately 4 liters (about one gallon) of pure
trichloroethylene, a common solvent, will contaminate over 1 billion liters (300 million
gallons) of water. Once groundwater is contaminated, it is difficult, costly, and sometimes
even impossible to clean up.

6.3 Case Study: The Ganga

There is a universal reverence to water in almost all of the major religions of the world. Most
religious beliefs involve some ceremonial use of "holy" water. The purity of such water, the
belief in its known historical and unknown mythological origins, and the inaccessibility of
remote sources, elevates its importance even further. In India, the water of the river Ganga is
treated with such reverence.
The river Ganga occupies a unique position in the cultural ethos of India.
However, the river is not just a legend, it is also a life-support system for the people of India.
It is important because:
• The densely populated Ganga basin is inhabited by 37 per cent of India's population.
• The entire Ganga basin system effectively drains eight states of India.
• About 47 per cent of the total irrigated area in India is located in the Ganga basin alone.
• It has been a major source of navigation and communication since ancient times.
• The Indo-Gangetic plain has witnessed the blossoming of India's great creative talent.
The purity of the water depends on the velocity and the dilution capacity of the river. A large
part of the flow of the Ganga is abstracted for irrigation just as it enters the plains at
Hardiwar. From there it flows as a trickle for a few hundred kilometres until Allahabad, from
where it is recharged by its tributaries. The Ganga receives over 60 per cent of its discharge
from its tributaries. The Ganga river carries the highest silt load of any river in the world and
the deposition of this material in the delta region results in the largest river delta in the world
(400 km from north to south and 320 km from east to west).
Exportation
In the recent past, due to rapid progress in communications and commerce, there has been a
swift increase in the urban areas along the river Ganga, As a result the river is no longer only
a source of water but is also a channel, receiving and transporting urban wastes away from
the towns. Today, one third of the country's urban population lives in the towns of the Ganga
basin. Out of the 2,300 towns in the country, 692 are located in this basin, and of these, 100
are located along the river bank itself. The belief the Ganga river is "holy" has not, however,

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prevented over-use, abuse and pollution of the river. All the towns along its length contribute
to the pollution load. It has been assessed that more than 80 per cent of the total pollution
load (in terms of organic pollution expressed as biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)) arises
from domestic sources, i.e. from the settlements along the river course. Due to over-
abstraction of water for irrigation in the upper regions of the river, the dry weather flow has
been reduced to a trickle. Rampant deforestation in the last few decades, resulting in topsoil
erosion in the catchment area, has increased silt deposits which, in turn, raise the river bed
and lead to devastating floods in the rainy season and stagnant flow in the dry season.
The Ganga Action Plan
Scientific awareness
There are 14 major river basins in India with natural waters that are being used for human
and developmental activities. These activities contribute significantly to the pollution loads of
these river basins. Of these river basins the Ganga sustains the largest population. The Central
Pollution Control Board (CPCB), which is India's national body for monitoring
environmental pollution, undertook a comprehensive scientific survey in 1981-82 in order to
classify river waters according to their designated best uses. This report was the first
systematic document that formed the basis of the Ganga Action Plan (GAP). It detailed land-
use patterns, domestic and industrial pollution loads, fertiliser and pesticide use, hydrological
aspects and river classifications.
It was realised that comprehensive co-ordinated research would have to be conducted on the
following aspects of Ganga:
• The sources and nature of the pollution.
• A more rational plan for the use of the resources of the Ganga for agriculture, animal
husbandry, fisheries, forests, etc.
• The demographic, cultural and human settlements on the banks of the river.
• The possible revival of the inland water transport facilities of the Ganga, together with the
tributaries and distributaries.
The Action Plan stressed the importance of applied research projects and many universities
and reputable organisations were supported with grants for projects carrying out studies and
observations which would have a direct bearing on the Action Plan. Some of the prominent
subjects were PC-based software modelling, sewage-fed pisciculture, conservation of fish in
upper river reaches, bioconservation in Bihar, monitoring of pesticides, using treated sewage
for irrigation, and rehabilitation of turtles.

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The pollution of the river, although classified as environmental, was the direct outcome of a
deeper social problem emerging from long-term public indifference, diffidence and apathy,
and a lack of public awareness, education and social values, and above all from poverty.
The GAP is a successful example of timely action due to environmental awareness at the
governmental level. Even more than this, it exhibits the achievement potential which is
attainable by "political will". It is a model which is constantly being upgraded and improved
in other river pollution prevention projects.

6.4 Water Quality Standards

There are several parameters applied to assess the quality of water. Water samples are tested
for these parameters to ensure that water is fit for consumption. Dissolved oxygen (DO),
biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), most probable number
(MPN) and total dissolved solids (TDS) are some such parameters. A detailed table of water
quality standards is given in table 1.3

Table 1.3: Water Quality Parameters and Drinking Water Standards

Sl. Parameters Units Drinking water
No. Is: 10500 - 1991
Desirable Maximum
Colour Hazen
1. 5 25
units
2. Odour - Unobjectionable -
3. Taste - Agreeable -
4. Turbidity NTU 5 10
5. pH value - 6.5 to 8.5 No relaxation
6. Total hardness (as CaCO3) mg/l 300 600
7. Iron mg/l 0.3 1.0
8. Chlorides mg/l 250 1000
9. Residual, free Chlorine mg/l 0.2 -
10. Dissolved Solids mg/l 500 2000
11. Calcium mg/l 75 200
12. Copper mg/l 0.05 1.5
13. Manganese mg/l 0.1 0.3

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14. Sulphate mg/l 200 400
15. Nitrate mg/l 50 No relaxation
16. Fluoride mg/l 1.0 1.5
17. Phenolic compounds mg/l 0.001 0.002
18. Mercury mg/l 0.001 No relaxation
18. Mercury mg/l 0.001 No relaxation
19. Cadmium mg/l 0.01 No relaxation
20. Selenium mg/l 0.01 No relaxation
21. Arsenic mg/l 0.05 No relaxation
22. Cyanide mg/l 0.05 No relaxation
23. Lead mg/l 0.05 No relaxation
24. Zinc mg/l 5 15
25. Anionic detergents mg/l 0.2 1.0
26. Chromium mg/l 0.05 No relaxation
Polynuclear aromatic
27. mg/l - -
Hydrocarbons
28. Mineral oil mg/l 0.01 0.03
29. Pesticides mg/l Absent 0.001
Radioactive
materials (a)
30. Bq/l - 0.1
Alpha emitters (b) Beta
Pci/l - 0.037
emitters
31. Alkalinity mg/l 200 600
32. Aluminlum mg/l 0.03 0.2
33. Boron mg/l 1 5

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6.5 Eutrophication
Eutrophication is a process whereby water bodies, such as estuaries or slow moving streams
receive excess nutrients that stimulate excessive plant growth(algae, periphyton attached
algae, and nuisance plants weeds ).This enhanced plant growth, often called an algal bloom,
reduces dissolved oxygen in the water when dead plant material decomposes and can cause
other organisms to die. Nutrients can come from many sources, such as fertilizers
applied to agricultural fields, golf courses, and suburban lawns; deposition of nitrogen from
the atmosphere; erosion of soil containing nutrients; and sewage treatment plant discharges.
Water with a low concentration of dissolved oxygen is called hypoxic.

Eutrophication is caused by the decrease of an ecosystem with chemical nutrients, typically

compounds containing nitrogen or phosphorus. It may occur on land or in the water.
Eutrophication is frequently a result of nutrient pollution such as the release of sewage
effluent into natural waters (rivers or coasts) although it may occur naturally in situations
where nutrients accumulate (e.g. depositional environments) or where they flow into systems
on an ephemeral basis (e.g. intermittent upwelling in coastal systems).

Eutrophication generally promotes excessive plant growth and decay, favors certain weedy
species over others, and is likely to cause severe reductions in water quality. In aquatic
environments, enhanced growth of choking aquatic vegetation or phytoplankton (that is, an
algal bloom) disrupts normal functioning of the ecosystem, causing a variety of problems.
Human society is impacted as well: eutrophication decreases the resource value of rivers,
lakes, and estuaries such that recreation, fishing, hunting, and aesthetic enjoyment are
hindered. Health-related problems can occur where eutrophic conditions interfere with
drinking water treatment.

6.6 Marine Pollution

Oceans are the ultimate sink of pollutants that are either directly dumped in the form of
wastes or reach there as run-offs through streams, canals or rivers or accidental spills like oil
spill. Marine pollution occurs when harmful effects, or potentially harmful effects, can
result from the entry into the ocean of chemicals, particles, industrial, agricultural and
residential waste, noise, or the spread of invasive organisms.

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Many potentially toxic chemicals adhere to tiny particles which are then taken up by plankton
and benthos animals, most of which are either deposit or filter feeders. In this way, the toxins
are concentrated upward within ocean food chains. Many particles combine chemically in a
manner highly depletive of oxygen, causing estuaries to become anoxic.
When pesticides are incorporated into the marine ecosystem, they quickly become absorbed
into marine food webs. Once in the food webs, these pesticides can cause mutations, as well
as diseases, which can be harmful to humans as well as the entire food web.
Toxic metals can also be introduced into marine food webs. These can cause a change to
tissue matter, biochemistry, behavior, reproduction, and suppress growth in marine life. Also,
many animal feeds have a high fish meal or fish hydrolysate content. In this way, marine
toxins can be transferred to land animals, and appear later in meat and dairy products.
Inland mining for copper, gold. etc., is another source of marine pollution. Most of the
pollution is simply soil, which ends up in rivers flowing to the sea. However, some minerals
discharged in the course of the mining can cause problems, such as copper, a common
industrial pollutant, which can interfere with the life history and development of coral polyps.
Polluted runoff from roads and highways can be a significant source of water pollution in
coastal areas. About 75 percent of the toxic chemicals that flow into the sea are carried by
storm water that runs off paved roads and driveways, rooftops, yards and other developed
land. Ships can pollute waterways and oceans in many ways. Oil spills can have devastating
effects. While being toxic to marine life, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), the
components in crude oil, are very difficult to clean up, and last for years in the sediment and
marine environment.
Discharge of cargo residues from bulk carriers can pollute ports, waterways and oceans. In
many instances vessels intentionally discharge illegal wastes despite foreign and domestic
regulation prohibiting such actions. It has been estimated that container ships lose over
10,000 containers at sea each year (usually during storms).[6] Ships also create noise pollution
that disturbs natural wildlife, and water from ballast tanks can spread harmful algae and other
invasive species.[7]
Ballast water taken up at sea and released in port is a major source of unwanted exotic marine
life.
6.7 Thermal Pollution
Thermal pollution is the degradation of water quality by any process that changes ambient
water temperature.

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A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power plants and
industrial manufacturers. When water used as a coolant is returned to the natural environment
at a higher temperature, the change in temperature decreases oxygen supply, and affects
ecosystem composition. Urban runoff–stormwater discharged to surface waters from roads
and parking lots–can also be a source of elevated water temperatures.
When a power plant first opens or shuts down for repair or other causes, fish and other
organisms adapted to particular temperature range can be killed by the abrupt rise in water
temperature known as "thermal shock."
Elevated temperature typically decreases the level of dissolved oxygen in water. This can
harm aquatic animals such as fish, amphibians and copepods. Thermal pollution may also
increase the metabolic rate of aquatic animals, as enzyme activity, resulting in these
organisms consuming more food in a shorter time than if their environment were not
changed. An increased metabolic rate may result in fewer resources; the more adapted
organisms moving in may have an advantage over organisms that are not used to the warmer
temperature. As a result, food chains of the old and new environments may be compromised.
Some fish species will avoid stream segments or coastal areas adjacent to a thermal
discharge. Biodiversity can be decreased as a result.
High temperature limits oxygen dispersion into deeper waters, contributing to anaerobic
conditions. This can lead to increased bacteria levels when there is ample food supply. Many
aquatic species will fail to reproduce at elevated temperatures.

7. LAND POLLUTION
Land pollution is the degradation of Earth’s land surfaces often caused by human activities
and their misuse of land resources. It occurs when waste is not disposed properly
Urbanization and industrialization are major causes of land pollution. Land pollution
basically is about contaminating the land surface of the Earth through dumping urban waste
matter indiscriminately, dumping of industrial waste, mineral exploitation, and misusing the
soil by harmful agricultural practices. Land pollution includes visible litter and waste along
with the soil itself being polluted. The soil gets polluted by the chemicals in pesticides and
herbicides used for agricultural purposes along with waste matter being littered in urban areas
such as roads, parks, and streets.

Land Pollution Comprises of Solid Waste and Soil Pollution

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Solid Waste: Semisolid or solid matter that are created by human or animal activities, and
which are disposed because they are hazardous or useless are known as solid waste. Most of
the solid wastes, like paper, plastic containers, bottles, cans, and even used cars and
electronic goods are not biodegradable, which means they do not get broken down through
inorganic or organic processes. Thus, when they accumulate they pose a health threat to
people, plus, decaying wastes also attract household pests and result in urban areas becoming
unhealthy, dirty, and unsightly places to reside in. Moreover, it also causes damage to
terrestrial organisms, while also reducing the uses of the land for other, more useful purposes.
Some of the sources of solid waste that cause land pollution are:
Wastes from Agriculture: This comprises of waste matter produced by crop, animal manure,
and farm residue.
Wastes from Industries: Industrial waste matter that can cause land pollution can include
paints, chemicals, and so on.
Solids from Sewage Treatment: Wastes that are left over after sewage has been treated,
biomass sludge, and settled solids
Ashes: The residual matter that remains after solid fuels are burned.
Garbage: This comprises of waste matter from food that are decomposable and other waste
matter that are not decomposable such as glass, metal, cloth, plastic, wood, paper, and so on.
Mining gas and petroleum also pollutes the land. Petroleum extraction and manufacturing
contaminates the soil with bitumen, gasoline, kerosene and mining brine solutions.
Opencast mining, which is a process where the surface of the earth is dug open to bring out
the underground mineral deposits, destroys the topsoil and contaminates the area with toxic
metals and chemicals.
Soil Pollution: Soil pollution is chiefly caused by chemicals in pesticides, such as poisons
that are used to kill agricultural pests like insects and herbicides that are used to get rid of
weeds. Hence, soil pollution results from:
Unhealthy methods of soil management.
Harmful practices of irrigation methods.
Land pollution is caused by farms because they allow manure to collect, which leaches into
the nearby land areas. Chemicals that are used for purposes like sheep dipping also cause
serious land pollution as do diesel oil spillages.
What are the Consequences of Land Pollution?
The major fallout of our over indulgence with our land areas are as follows:

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 1. Loss of Biodiversity: Natural flora and fauna are destroyed due to cutting of vast areas
of forests. This leads to large scale loss of various flora and fauna. Presently about 6000
animals and 30,000 plant species are considered to be threatened.
2. Soil Erosion: It is the process of loosening, detachment, and removal of soil
components especially the top soil particles. Soil pollution is caused by wind blows and
water flows. Excessive deforestation devoid the earth of cover leading to loss of top soil
and slitting of water bodies.
How can Land Pollution be prevented?
People should be educated and made aware about the harmful effects of littering
Items used for domestic purposes ought to be reused or recycled
Personal litter should be disposed properly
Organic waste matter should be disposed in areas that are far away from residential
places
Inorganic matter such as paper, plastic, glass and metals should be reclaimed and then
recycled
8. NOISE POLLUTION
Sound is the medium of communication. Life without sound is meaningless but when sound
become noise it starts polluting the environment. Noise pollution is excessive, displeasing
human, animal or machine-created environmental noise that disrupts the activity or balance
of human or animal life.
The source of most outdoor noise worldwide is mainly construction and transportation
systems, including motor vehicle noise, aircraft noise and rail noise.[1][2] Poor urban planning
may give rise to noise pollution, since side-by-side industrial and residential buildings can
result in noise pollution in the residential area. Indoor and outdoor noise pollution sources
include car alarms, emergency service sirens, mechanical equipment, fireworks, compressed
air horns, grounds keeping equipment, barking dogs, appliances, lighting hum, audio
entertainment systems, and electric megaphones, and loud people. Noise pollution can cause
annoyance and aggression, hypertension, high stress levels, tinnitus, hearing loss, sleep
disturbances, and other harmful effects.[3][4][5][6] Furthermore, stress and hypertension are the
leading causes to health problems, whereas tinnitus can lead to forgetfulness, severe
depression and at times panic attacks.[4][7]
Sound travels in form of waves. The waves exert pressure. Loudness or the intensity of the
sound is measured by measuring the pressure on a scale called as decibel (db). Apart from
pressure sound has pitch also. A high pitch sound is louder than a low pitch sound even if

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the pressure is same. The unit that measure both pitch and pressure is called as decibel-A.
Here are some interesting numbers (Table 1.4), collected from a variety of sources that
help one to understand the volume levels of various sources and how they can affect our
hearing.

Table 1.4 Different noise levels

Environmental Noise

Weakest sound heard 0dB

Whisper Quiet Library 30dB

Normal conversation (3-5') 60-70dB

Telephone dial tone 80dB

City Traffic (inside car) 85dB

Train whistle at 500', Truck Traffic 90dB

Subway train at 200' 95dB

Level at which sustained exposure may

90 - 95dB
result in hearing loss

Power mower at 3' 107dB

Snowmobile, Motorcycle 100dB

Power saw at 3' 110dB

Sandblasting, Loud Rock Concert 115dB

Pain begins 125dB

Pneumatic riveter at 4' 125dB

Even short term exposure can cause

permanent damage - Loudest
140dB
recommended exposure WITH hearing
protection

Jet engine at 100', Gun Blast 140dB

Death of hearing tissue 180dB

Loudest sound possible 194dB

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Its effects are further depicted in figure 1.4

Fig. 1.4 Depicting the impacts of noise pollution on the hearing of man

Noise pollution control measures include reduction of noise at source, interruption in the
path of transmission and protection of the receiver. The permissible air quality standards
in respect of noise are given in table 1.4
Table 1.5 Ambient Air Quality Standards in respect of Noise
Area Code Category of Area/Zone Limits in dB(A) Leq *

Day Time NightTime

(A) Industrial area 75 70

(B) Commercial area 65 55

(C) Residential area 55 45

(D) Silence Zone 50 40

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Monitoring of ambient noise levels by CPCB on deepavali night showed that the noise
levels were much higher than the prescribed 45dbA applicable to residential area. We
have to make a conscious effort to make our environment noise pollution free.

9. POLLUTION BY RADIOACTIVITY
The radioactive pollution is defined as the physical pollution of air, water and the other
radioactive materials. The ability of certain materials to emit the proton, gamma rays and
electrons by their nuclei is known as the radioactivity. The protons are known as the alpha
particle and the electrons are also known as the beta particle. Those materials are known
as the radioactive elements. The environmental radiations can be from different sources
and can be natural or manmade. The natural radiations are also known as the background
radiations. In this the cosmic rays are involved and reach the surface of earth from space.
It includes the radioactive elements like radium, uranium, thorium, radon, potassium and
carbon. These occur in the rock, soil and water. The man made radiations include the
mining and refining of plutonium and thorium. This production and explosion of nuclear
weapons include the nuclear fuels, power plants and radioactive isotopes. The first atom
bomb was exploded in the Japan in the year 1945. It affected the Hiroshima and Nagasaki
cities. It adversely affected the flora, fauna and humans of that area. In spite of these
destructions the nuclear race is still going on between different nations. The nuclear arms
are tested with the production of nuclear weapons. The radioactive elements are produced
in the environment and affect other materials also. It includes the strontium, radium and
iodine. The gases and particles are produced by the radioactive materials. They are carried
by the wind and the rain brings down the radioactive particles to the ground which is
referred as nuclear fallout. The soil transfers these radioactive substances to the plants and
ultimately they reach the human body and cause many side effects. The iodine may affect
the white blood cells, bone marrow, spleen, lymph, skin cancer, sterility, eye and damage
to the lung. The strontium has the ability to aggregate in the bones and form a bone cancer
and leads to tissue degeneration. The radioactive materials are passed through the land to
water and cause an adverse effect on the aquatic animals. They reach to human through
the food chain. The nuclear power generates a lot of energy which is used to run turbines
and produces electricity. The fuel and the coolant produce a large amount of pollution in
the environment. The atomic reactors are also rich in the radioactive materials. There
biggest problem is in their disposal and if they are not properly disposed they can harm the
living organisms. If they escape they can cause a hell lot of destruction. The gases escape

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as a vapour and cause pollution on the land and water. The use of radioactive isotopes is
multipurpose. They are of a great scientific value and they may be present in the waste
water. From these water resources they reach to the human body via food chain. The
people who work in power plants have more chances of the exposure to harmful
radiations. The human beings also receive the radiation and radiotherapy from the x rays.

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Post Graduate Diploma in Environmental Management (PGDEM)
Block -IV
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION,
ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH

Unit - 9 : Part-II ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH

EPCO INSTITUTE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

EPCO Paryavaran Parisar, E-5 Arera Colony, Bhopal 462016 (M.P.)
Tel. 2466970, 2464318, 2466859 Fax: (0755)-2462136
Website www.epco.in email: [email protected] , [email protected]

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UNIT-9 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION, ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH

PART- II : HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENT

2.1:- INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH

Environmental conditions and health of all organisms including human being are interrelated.
In fact, a clean environment is essential for human health and well-being. However, the
interactions between the environment and human health are highly complex and difficult to
assess. This makes the use of the precautionary principle practically useful. The best-known
health impacts are related to ambient air pollution, poor water quality and insufficient
sanitation. Much less is known about the health impacts of hazardous chemicals. Noise is an
emerging environmental problem and health issue. Climate change, depletion of stratospheric
ozone, loss of biodiversity, and land degradation can also affect human health. There is
growing concern about the links between the environment and health. Worldwide one quarter
to one third of the burden of disease appears to be attributable to environmental factors.
Vulnerability and exposure, however, vary markedly between different groups and areas,
particularly children and the elderly being at risk. There is reasonable understanding of cause-
and effect relationships between water, air pollution and human health. However, the health
consequences of other environmental factors and exposures, such as those resulting from
climate change and chemicals in the environment are consequence of complex interactions
between the environment and humans that are far less understood. For some chemicals, such
as endocrine-disrupting substances, the effects on human health are particularly difficult to
unravel. Other chemicals in the environment, the disposal of wastes and noise continue to
cause worry. There are several diseases that are of concern. For example allergy, asthma,
neuron-toxicity, problem in onset of puberty and fertility, cancer, heart disease and obesity ,
all being associated with risk correlated to environment, diet and genetic factors. Many
pollutants known to affect human health are gradually coming under regulatory control.
However, there are emerging issues for which environmental pathways and effects on health
are as yet poorly understood. Examples are electromagnetic fields (EMF), pharmaceuticals in
the environment and some infectious diseases (the spreading of which may be affected by
climate change). The development of ‘early warning’ systems should be encouraged to
shorten the time between detection of a potential hazard and a policy action or intervention.
Human health has always been threatened by natural hazards such as storms, floods, fires,
landslides and droughts. Their consequences are being worsened by a lack of preparedness

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and by human actions such as deforestation, climate change and biodiversity loss. Obviously
there is a need to understand the proer relation of environment and health.
Despite the fact that the health of a person is most important for his/her life, public health
problems caused by environmental contamination and emerging infectious diseases are of
growing concern worldwide. These public health threats are affected by the relationship
between people and the physical, chemical, and biological nature of our natural
environments. Population growth and the associated pressures of development are increasing
the difficulties associated with sustaining effective public health practices and policies.
Vector-borne and zoonotic diseases, because of water, airborne and bio-ccumulative
contaminants in the food chain, and environmental threats to public health the world over
require marshalling of all our scientific knowledge and know-how to develop new methods
for solutions. Therefore understanding environmental and ecological health is a prerequisite
to protecting public health.

2.2:- HEALTH EFFECTS OF TOXIC CHEMICALS

There are many materials used in the workplace that can be hazardous. In order to cause
some adverse effects on the health, they must come in contact with the body or be absorbed
into the body. Before assessing the potential health effects of a particular material it is
necessary to understand difference between "toxicity" and "hazard".
2.2.1 Toxicity and hazardous: Toxicity is the ability of a substance to produce an unwanted
effect when the chemical has reached in sufficient concentration at a certain site in the body.
The more toxic a material is, the smaller the amount of it necessary to be absorbed before
harmful effects are caused. In contrast, the lower the toxicity, the greater the quantity of it
necessary to be absorbed. The toxicity of a chemical is generally measured by experiments on
animals (quite often rats). If it is measured in terms of the amounts of material necessary to
cause death in 50% of the test animals. These values are called LD50 (lethal dose) or LC50
(lethal concentration) , usually expressed in weight of material/ kg of body weight or
airborne concentration of material per set time period respectively.
1. A hazard is a situation that poses a level of threat to life, health, property, or
environment while toxicity is an inherent property of the material. A material may be
very toxic, but not hazardous, if it is handled properly and is not absorbed into the
body. On the other hand, a material may have a very low toxicity, but is highly
hazardous
Example:

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 1. An open container of an acid is much more hazardous than a closed container of the
same material.
2. Two liquids may possess the same degree of toxicity but present different degrees of
hazard:-
One material may be non-irritating to the eyes and nose and odorless. The other may
be irritating to the eyes or respiratory system and possess a pungent odor.
The latter material, because of its warning properties presents a lesser degree of
hazard.
In order for toxicants to affect the human system either they must cause damage to external
tissues, such as the skin or eyes, or they must be able to enter the body by some mechanism.

There are three primary routes of entry into the body: ingestion (taking a material into the
body by mouth), skin or eye absorption, and inhalation(by breathing it in).
2.2.2:-Health Effects - Chronic vs. Acute Once a toxic substance has contacted the body it
may have either acute (immediate) or chronic (long term) effects. Example: Spilling acid on
your hand will cause immediate harm, i.e. a burn to the skin.
Exposure to asbestos or tobacco smoke may result in lung cancer after as much as twenty
years (this is a long term effect).
Similarly exposure can be classified as chronic or acute. In chronic exposures, the dose is
delivered at some frequency (daily or weekly) over a period of time. In acute exposures, the
dose is delivered in a single event and absorption is rapid. Usually, a chronic exposure occurs
at low concentration and acute exposure at high concentration.
Some materials may only cause harm if given acutely, not having any effect in the long term.
Other materials may not exhibit an effect in the short term, but may cause problems after
prolonged exposure.

2.3:- HEALTH PROBLEM DUE TO AIR POLLUTION

2.3.1:- Air pollution and Health
Air pollution is a mixture of solid particles and gases in the air. Car emissions, chemicals
from factories, dust, pollen and spores may be suspended as particles. Some air pollutants are
poisonous. Inhaling them can increase the chance of health problems. People with heart or
lung disease, older adults and children are at greater risk from air pollution. Not only the
outside air pollution– the air inside buildings can also be polluted and affect one’s health in
many ways with both short-term and long-term effects. Different groups of individuals are

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affected by air pollution in different ways. Some individuals are much more sensitive to
pollutants than are others. Young children and elderly people often suffer more from the
effects of air pollution. People with health problems such as asthma, heart and lung disease
may also suffer more when the air is polluted. The extent to which an individual is harmed by
air pollution usually depends on the total exposure to the damaging chemicals considering
both the duration of exposure and the concentration of the chemicals.
Examples of short-term effects include irritation to the eyes, nose , throat, and upper
respiratory tract. Other symptoms can include headaches, nausea, and allergic reactions.
Short-term air pollution can aggravate the conditions of individuals with asthma and
emphysema. It may be emphasized that in the great "Smog Disaster" in London in 1952, four
thousand people died in a few days due to the high concentrations of pollutants
Long-term health effects include chronic respiratory disease, lung cancer, heart disease,
and even damage to the brain, nerves, liver, and kidneys. Continual exposure to air pollution
affects the lungs of growing children and may aggravate or complicate medical conditions in
the elderly. It is estimated that half a million people die prematurely every year in the United
States as a result of smoking cigarettes. Research into the health effects of air pollution is
ongoing. Medical conditions arising from air pollution can be very expensive. In fact,
healthcare, lost productivity in the workplace, and human welfare impacts cost billions of
dollars each year.

2.3.2:- The Indoor Pollution: - A major killer

The World Health Organization (WHO) has assessed the contribution of a range of risk
factors to the burden of disease and revealed indoor air pollution as the 8th most important
risk factor and responsible for 2.7% of the global burden of disease . Globally, indoor air
pollution from solid fuel use is responsible for 1.6 million deaths due to pneumonia, chronic
respiratory disease and lung cancer, with the overall disease burden (in Disability-Adjusted
Life Years or DALYs, a measure combining years of life lost due to disability and death)
exceeding the burden from outdoor air pollution five fold. In developing countries, indoor
smoke is responsible for an estimated 3.7% of the overall disease burden, making it the most
lethal killer after malnutrition, unsafe sex and lack of safe water and sanitation.
Indoor air pollution has been associated with a wide range of health outcomes, and the
evidence for these associations has been classified as strong, moderate or tentative in a recent
systematic review. Indoor air pollution as a cause is classified as strong. There is consistent

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evidence that exposure to indoor air pollution increases the risk of pneumonia among
children under five years, and chronic respiratory disease and lung cancer (in relation to coal
use) among adults over 30 years old. The evidence for a link with lung cancer from exposure
to biomass smoke, and for a link with asthma, cataracts and tuberculosis was considered
moderate. On the basis of the limited available studies, there is tentative evidence for an
association between indoor air pollution and adverse pregnancy outcomes, in particular low
birth weight, or ischemic heart disease and nasopharyngeal and laryngeal cancers.
While the precise mechanism of how exposure to air pollutants causes disease is still unclear,
it is understood that small particles and several of the other pollutants contained in indoor
smoke cause inflammation of the airways and lungs and impair the immune response. Carbon
monoxide also results in systemic effects by reducing the oxygen-carrying capacity of the
blood.
Pneumonia and other acute lower respiratory infections
Globally, pneumonia and other acute lower respiratory infections represent the single most
important cause of death in children under five years. Exposure to indoor air pollution more
than doubles the risk of pneumonia and is thus responsible for more than 900 000 annual
deaths from pneumonia. Women exposed to indoor smoke are three times as likely to suffer
from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), such as chronic bronchitis, than women
who cook and heat with electricity, gas and other cleaner fuels. Among men, exposure to this
neglected risk factor nearly doubles the risk of chronic respiratory disease. Consequently,
indoor air pollution is responsible for approximately 700 000 out of the 2.7 million global
deaths due to COPD.
Lung cancer
Coal use is widespread in China and cooking on open fires or simple stoves can cause lung
cancer in women. Exposure to smoke from coal fires doubles the risk of lung cancer, in
particular among women who tend to smoke less than men in most developing countries.
Every year, more than one million people die from lung cancer globally, and indoor air
pollution is responsible for approximately 1.5% of these deaths.

2.3.3:- What WHO is doing

WHO, as the global public health agency, is advocating for the integration of health in
international and national energy policies and programmes. WHO collects and evaluates the
evidence for the impact of household energy on health and for the effectiveness of

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interventions in reducing the health burden on children, women and other vulnerable groups.
WHO's programme on household energy and health rests on four pillars:
Documenting the health burden of indoor air pollution and household
energy: WHO will provide a regular update of the links between household energy
and health and, where feasible, offer support to key research undertakings.
Evaluating the effectiveness of technical solutions and their
implementation: Developing simple tools for monitoring the effectiveness of
interventions in improving health and building the capacity to conduct such
evaluations will help generate much needed information from ongoing small- and
large-scale projects. This information will provide the basis for the development of a
catalogue of options that review both the effectiveness of interventions, and lessons
learnt in relation to their implementation.
Acting as the global advocate for health as a central component of international
and national energy policies: Ultimately, policy-makers will want to know whether
it pays off to invest in large-scale operations to reduce indoor air pollution. In terms of
health, a recent cost-effectiveness analysis of different interventions suggests that
improved stoves and switching to kerosene and gas represent cost-effective solutions.
In addition, WHO is working on a cost-benefit analysis of interventions that - beyond
health - will take into account all the benefits associated with improved household
energy practices.
Monitoring changes in household energy habits over time: Information about the
energy habits of poor, mostly rural households is scarce and WHO has the
responsibility to work towards progress in this area and to report, on a yearly basis,
the Millennium Development Goal Indicator 29 "percentage of population using solid
fuels".
Key partners include the Partnership for Clean Indoor Air, the United Nations Environment
Programme, the United Nations Development Programme and the World Bank as well as
many research institutions and non-governmental agencies around the world. WHO is already
actively taking part in projects in several developing countries, including the most
sophisticated scientific indoor air pollution study to date undertaken in Guatemala, and work
in China, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Mongolia, Nepal, Kenya and Sudan. In the
future, work will focus even more on those countries and populations most in need.

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2.4:- WATER POLLUTION AND HEALTH

2.4.1:- Health impacts of water pollution

It is a well-known fact that clean water is absolutely essential for healthy living. Adequate
supply of fresh and clean drinking water is a basic need for all human beings on the earth, yet
it has been observed that millions of people worldwide are deprived of this.
Freshwater resources all over the world are threatened not only by over exploitation and poor
management but also by ecological degradation. The main source of freshwater pollution can
be attributed to discharge of untreated waste, dumping of industrial effluent, and run-off from
agricultural fields. Industrial growth, urbanization and the increasing use of synthetic organic
substances have serious and adverse impacts on freshwater bodies. It is a generally accepted
fact that the developed countries suffer from problems of chemical discharge into the water
sources mainly groundwater, while developing countries face problems of agricultural run-off
in water sources. Polluted water like chemicals in drinking water causes problem to health
and leads to water-borne diseases which can be prevented by taking measures even at the
household level.

2.4.2:- Ground and surface water contamination

Many areas of groundwater and surface water are now contaminated with heavy metals,
POPs (persistent organic pollutants), and nutrients that have an adverse affect on health.
Water-borne diseases and health problems are mostly due to inadequate and incompetent
management of water resources. In the urban areas water gets contaminated in many different
ways, some of the most common reasons being leaky water pipe joints in areas where the
water pipe and sewage line pass close together. Sometimes the water gets polluted at source
due to various reasons and mainly due to inflow of sewage into the source.
Water can be contaminated through various sources and some of these are mentioned below.
Pesticides. Run-off from farms, backyards, and golf courses contain pesticides such as DDT
that in turn contaminate the water. Leachate from landfill sites is another major
contaminating source. Its effects on the ecosystems and health are endocrine and reproductive
damage in wildlife. Groundwater is susceptible to contamination, as pesticides percolate in
the soil. It is a matter of concern as these chemicals are persistent in the soil and water.
Sewage. Untreated or inadequately treated municipal sewage is a major source of
groundwater and surface water pollution in the developing countries. The organic material
that is discharged with municipal waste into the water courses uses substantial oxygen for

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biological degradation thereby upsetting the ecological balance of rivers and lakes. Sewage
also carries microbial pathogens that are the cause of the spread of disease.
Nutrients. Domestic waste water, agricultural run-off, and industrial effluents contain
phosphorus and nitrogen, fertilizer run-off, manure from livestock operations, which increase
the level of nutrients in water bodies and can cause eutrophication in the lakes and rivers and
continue on to the coastal areas. The nitrates come mainly from the fertilizer that is added to
the fields. Excessive use of fertilizers causes nitrate contamination of groundwater, with the
result that nitrate levels in drinking water is far above the safety levels recommended. Good
agricultural practices can help in reducing the amount of nitrates in the soil and thereby lower
its content in the water.
Synthetic organics. Most of the 100 000 synthetic compounds in use today are found in the
aquatic environment and accumulate in the food chain. POPs or Persistent organic pollutants,
represent the most harmful element for the ecosystem and for human health. For example,
industrial chemicals and agricultural pesticides can accumulate in fish and cause serious
damage to human health. Where pesticides are used on a large-scale, groundwater gets
contaminated and this leads to the chemical contamination of drinking water.
Acidification. Acidification of surface water, mainly lakes and reservoirs, is one of the major
environmental impacts of transport over long distance of air pollutants such as sulphur
dioxide from power plants, heavy industry such as steel plants, and motor vehicles. This
problem is more severe in the US and in parts of Europe.
2.4.3:- Chemicals in drinking water
Chemicals in water can be both naturally occurring or introduced by human interference and
can have serious health effects.
Fluoride. Fluoride in the water is essential for protection against dental caries and weakening
of the bones, but higher levels can have an adverse effect on health. In India, high fluoride
content is found naturally in the waters in Rajasthan.
Arsenic. Arsenic occurs naturally or is possibly aggrevated by over powering aquifers and by
phosphorus from fertilizers. High concentrations of arsenic in water can have an adverse
effect on health.A few years back, high concentrations of this element was found in drinking
water in six districts in West Bengal. A majority of people in the area was found suffering
from arsenic skin lesions. It was felt that arsenic contamination in the groundwater was due to
natural causes. The government is trying to provide an alternative drinking water source and
a method through which the arsenic content from water can be removed.

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Lead. Pipes, fittings, solder, and the service connections of some household plumbing
systems contain lead that contaminates the drinking water source.
Recreational use of water. Untreated sewage, industrial effluents, and agricultural waste are
often discharged into the water bodies such as the lakes, coastal areas and rivers endangering
their use for recreational purposes such as swimming and canoeing.
Petrochemicals. Petrochemicals contaminate the groundwater from underground petroleum
storage tanks.
Other heavy metals. These contaminants come from mining waste and tailings, landfills, or
hazardous waste dumps.
Chlorinated solvents. Metal and plastic effluents, fabric cleaning, electronic and aircraft
manufacturing are often discharged and contaminate groundwater.

2.4.4:- Water born diseases

Water-borne diseases are infectious diseases spread primarily through contaminated water.
Though these diseases are spread either directly or through flies or filth, water is the chief
medium for spread of these diseases and hence they are termed as water-borne diseases.

Cause Water-borne diseases

Bacterial infections Typhoid , Cholera , Paratyphoid , Fever, Bacillary dysentery
Viral infections Hepatitis (jaundice), Poliomyelitis
Protozoal infections Amoebic dysentery

Most intestinal (enteric) diseases are infectious and are transmitted through fecal waste.
Pathogens – which include virus, bacteria, protozoa, and parasitic worms – are disease-
producing agents found in the feces of infected persons. These diseases are more prevalent in
areas with poor sanitary conditions. These pathogens travel through water sources and
interfuses directly through persons handling food and water. Since these diseases are highly
infectious. Hepatitis, cholera, dysentery, and typhoid are the more common water-borne
diseases that affect large populations in the tropical regions.
A large number of chemicals that either exist naturally in the land or are added due to human
activity dissolve in the water, thereby contaminating it and leading to various diseases.
Pesticides. The organophosphates and the carbonates present in pesticides affect and damage
the nervous system and can cause cancer. Some of the pesticides contain carcinogens that

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exceed recommended levels. They contain chlorides that cause reproductive and endocrinal
damage.
Lead. Lead is hazardous to health as it accumulates in the body and affects the central
nervous system. Children and pregnant women are most at risk.
Fluoride. Excess fluorides can cause yellowing of the teeth and damage to the spinal cord and
other crippling diseases.
Nitrates. Drinking water that gets contaminated with nitrates can prove fatal especially to
infants that drink formula milk as it restricts the amount of oxygen that reaches the brain
causing the ‘blue baby’ syndrome. It is also linked to digestive tract cancers. It causes algae
to bloom resulting in eutrophication in surface water.
Petrochemicals. Benzene and other petrochemicals can cause cancer even at low exposure
levels.
Chlorinated solvents. These are linked to reproductive disorders and to some cancers.
Arsenic. Arsenic poisoning through water can cause liver and nervous system damage,
vascular diseases and also skin cancer.
Other heavy metals. –Heavy metals cause damage to the nervous system and the kidney, and
other metabolic disruptions.
Salts. It makes the fresh water unusable for drinking and irrigation purposes.
Exposure to polluted water can cause diarrhoea, skin irritation, respiratory problems, and
other diseases, depending on the pollutant that is in the water body. Stagnant water and other
untreated water provide a habitat for the mosquito and a host of other parasites and insects
that cause a large number of diseases especially in the tropical regions. Among these, malaria
is undoubtedly the most widely distributed and causes most damage to human health.
2.4.5:- Minamata: environmental contamination with methyl mercury
In Minamata, Japan, inorganic mercury was used in the industrial production of acetaldehyde.
It was discharged into the nearby bay as waste water and was ingested by organisms of the
bottom sediments. Fish and other creatures in the sea were soon contaminated and eventually
residents of this area who consumed the fish suffered from MeHg (methyl mercury)
intoxication, later known as the Minamata disease. The disease was first detected in 1956 but
the mercury emissions continued until 1968. Even after the emission of mercury stopped, the
bottom sediment of the polluted water contained high levels of this mercury.
Various measures were taken to deal with this disease. Environmental pollution control,
which included cessation of the mercury process; industrial effluent control, environmental

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restoration of the bay; and restrictions on the intake of fish from the bay. This promoted
research and investigative activities assiduously.
The Minamata disease proved a turning point, towards progress in environment protection
measures. This experience clearly showed that health and environment considerations must
be integrated into the process of economic and industrial development from an early stage.

2.5- SOIL POLLUTION AND HEALTH

Soil contamination or soil pollution is caused by the presence of xenobiotic (human-made)
chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment. This type of contamination
typically arises from the rupture of underground storage tanks, application of pesticides and
percolation of surface water to subsurface strata, oil and fuel dumping, leaching of wastes
from landfills or direct discharge of industrial wastes to the soil. The most common
chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead and other heavy
metals. This occurrence of this phenomenon is correlated with the degree of industrialization
and intensities of chemical usage.
The concern over soil contamination stems primarily from health risks, from direct contact
with the contaminated soil, vapors from the contaminants, and from secondary contamination
of water supplies within and underlying the soil. Mapping of contaminated soil sites and the
resulting cleanup are time consuming and expensive tasks, requiring extensive amounts
of geology, hydrology, chemistry, computer modeling skills, and GIS in Environmental
Contamination.
It is in North America and Western Europe that the extent of contaminated land is most well
known, with many of countries in these areas having a legal framework to identify and deal
with this environmental problem; this however may well be just the tip of the iceberg with
developing countries very likely to be the next generation of new soil contamination cases.
The immense and sustained growth of the People's Republic of China since the 1970s has
exacted a price from the land in increased soil pollution. The State Environmental Protection
Administration believes it to be a threat to the environment, to food safety and to sustainable
agriculture. According to a scientific sampling, 150 million mi (100,000 square kilometers)
of China’s cultivated land have been polluted, with contaminated water being used to irrigate
a further 32.5 million mi (21,670 square kilometers) and another 2 million mi (1,300 square
kilometers) covered or destroyed by solid waste. In total, the area accounts for one-tenth of
China’s cultivatable land, and are mostly in economically developed areas. An estimated 12

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million tonnes of grain are contaminated by heavy metals every year, causing direct losses of
20 billion yuan (US$2.57 billion).
2.5.1:-Causes

This type of contamination typically arises from the rupture of underground storage tanks,
application of pesticides, and percolation of contaminated surface water to subsurface strata,
oil and fuel dumping, leaching of wastes from landfills or direct discharge of industrial
wastes to the soil. The most common chemicals involved are
petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead and other heavy metals. This occurrence
of this phenomenon is correlated with the degree of industrialization and intensities of
chemical usage.
Treated sewage sludge, known in the industry as biosolids, has become controversial as a
fertilizer to the land. As it is the byproduct of sewage treatment, it generally contains
contaminants such as organisms, pesticides, and heavy metals than other soil.
There is also controversy surrounding the contamination of fertilizers with heavy metals; a
series of newspaper articles in the Seattle Times made the issue a "national focus" in
the United States, and culminated in a book called Fateful Harvest.

Water and air pollution tend to diffuse on their own over time and also merge with
other chemicals to form harmless compounds. But soil absorbs pollution like a
sponge. Soil pollution can remain inert until it is ingested by a human and causes
sometimes-disastrous health effects.
Soil Fertility
Soil pollution reduces soil fertility, according to Tutor Vista. This can be harmful for
various parties. Businesses usually prefer to have grass because the grass makes their
properties look more attractive. Homeowners often prefer to grow a variety of plants
around their homes, such as flowers. The land will not be usable by agriculture, either.
This can lead to inadequate food-crop production, which can negatively affect human
health.
Acidification
Many chemicals and salts can increase soil acidification, according to the World
Health Organization. Acid-loving soils tend to be toxic to human health.

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 Groundwater
Soil pollution can leach into the groundwater and end up in drinking supplies,
according to the World Health Organization. Directly consuming the contaminated
water can cause health effects associated with the types of chemicals that are in the
water.
2.5.2:-Health effects
Contaminated or polluted soil directly affects human health through direct contact with soil
or via inhalation of soil contaminants which have vaporized; potentially greater threats are
posed by the infiltration of soil contamination into groundwater aquifers used for human
consumption, sometimes in areas apparently far removed from any apparent source of above
ground contamination.
Health consequences from exposure to soil contamination vary greatly depending on
pollutant type, pathway of attack and vulnerability of the exposed population. Chronic
exposure to chromium, lead and other metals, petroleum, solvents, and many pesticide and
herbicide formulations can be carcinogenic, can cause congenital disorders, or can cause
other chronic health conditions. Industrial or man-made concentrations of naturally-occurring
substances, such as nitrate and ammonia associated with livestock manure from agricultural
operations, have also been identified as health hazards in soil and groundwater.[5]
Chronic exposure to benzene at sufficient concentrations is known to be associated with
higher incidence of leukemia. Mercury and cyclodienes are known to induce higher
incidences of kidney damage, some irreversible. PCBs and cyclodienes are linked to liver
toxicity. Organophosphates and carbonates can induce a chain of responses leading to
neuromuscular blockage. Many chlorinated solvents induce liver changes, kidney changes
and depression of the central nervous system. There is an entire spectrum of further health
effects such as headache, nausea, fatigue, eye irritation and skin rash for the above cited and
other chemicals. At sufficient dosages a large number of soil contaminants can cause death
by exposure via direct contact, inhalation or ingestion of contaminants in groundwater
contaminated through soil.
Direct Contact
Human health can be severely affected by direct contact with contaminated soils,
according to Omtex Classes. For example, building a playground on a contaminated
site can be disastrous since the children will tend to come into heavy contact with the
contaminated soil and their development can be drastically harmed. Chromium has

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 been linked to cancer. Lead has been linked to brain damage and kidney damage.
Mercury can lead to both liver and kidney damage.
Effects on Child Development
While adults can be harmed by soil pollution, children are at a much higher risk of
contamination, according to Environmental Pollution Centers. Children's smaller
bodies mean soil pollution can get ingested into their bodies at much higher relative
quantities. Also, children do not take many of the precautions that adults take,
including eating harmful substances. Children are still developing, and their
development can be harmed by pollution.

2.5.3:- Miningand smelting in soil pollution :- Mining and smelting are lethal causes of
soil pollution .Extraction and processing of mineral ores causes harm to the top soil
layer.Installation of cement factories in the mountainous regions weakens the soil strata
leading to landslides ,and on the other hand, the cement dust that falls on natural vegetation
and crops blocks their stomata to cause their environmental death.
Effects: Mining wastes often cover the top soil, thus spoiling a precious natural resource.
♦ It makes the soil infertile.
♦ It harms the existence of microorganisms thriving on the soil.
♦Heavy metals that enter the soil enter the food cycle.These metals are
particularly absorbed by infants and children.

2.6:- RADIOACTIVE POLLUTANTS:-

Radioactive pollutants arise from nuclear activities like explosion devices, nuclear tests and
laboratories, as well as nuclear power plants. Also from laboratories, hospital and industries.
Radioactive elements that are released into the air also enter the soil asradionuclide's with
rainwater.

EFFECTS: -
♦The rainwater that passes through the polluted soil picks up radioactive
elements. This harms the flora and fauna that thrive on rainwater.
♦Radioactive elements are absorbed by soil particles, causing harm to soil
qualities.
♦They can cause health problems for human beings.

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2.6.1:- RADIO ACTIVE POLLUTION AND HUMAN HEALTH
Radioactive contamination, also called radiological contamination, is radioactive substances
on surfaces or within solids, liquids or gases (including the human body), where their
presence is unintended or undesirable, or the process giving rise to their presence in such
places. Also used less formally to refer to a quantity, namely the activity on a surface (or on a
unit area of a surface).
Radioactive contamination refers only to the presence of the unintended or
undesirable radioactivity, and gives no indication of the magnitude of hazard involved.
2.6.2:- Sources of contamination
Radioactive contamination is typically the result of a spill or accident during the production
or use of radio-nuclides (radioisotopes), an unstable nucleus which has excessive energy.
Less typically, nuclear fallout is the distribution of radioactive contamination by a nuclear
explosion. The amount of radioactive material released in an accident is called the source
term.
Contamination may occur from radioactive gases, liquids or particles. For example, if a
radionuclide used in nuclear medicine is accidentally spilled, the material could be spread by

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people as they walk around. Radioactive contamination may also be an inevitable result of
certain processes, such as the release of radioactive xenon innuclear fuel reprocessing. In
cases that radioactive material cannot be contained, it may be diluted to safe concentrations.
For a discussion of environmental contamination by alpha emitters please see actinides in the
environment.
Containment is what differentiates radioactive material from radioactive contamination.
Contamination does not include residual radioactive material remaining at a site after the
completion of decommissioning. Therefore, radioactive material in sealed and designated
containers is not properly referred to as contamination, although the units of measurement
might be the same.
2.6.3:- Surface contamination
Surface contamination is usually expressed in units of radioactivity per unit of area. For SI,
this is Becquerels per square meter (or Bq/m²). Other units such as picoCuries per 100 cm²
or disintegrations per minute per square centimeter (1 dpm/cm² = 166 2/3 Bq/m²) may be
used. Surface contamination may either be fixed or removable. In the case of fixed
contamination, the radioactive material cannot by definition be spread, but it is still
measurable.
Hazards

In the natural world there is no such thing as zero radiation. Not only is the entire world
constantly bombarded by cosmic rays, but every living creature on earth contains significant
quantities of carbon-14 and most (including humans) contains significant quantities
of potassium-40. These tiny levels of radiation are not any more harmful than sunlight, but
just as excessive quantities of sunlight can be dangerous, so too can excessive levels of
radiation.
Low level contamination
The hazards to people and the environment from radioactive contamination depend on the
nature of the radioactive contaminant, the level of contamination, and the extent of the spread
of contamination. Low levels of radioactive contamination pose little risk, but can still be
detected by radiation instrumentation. In the case of low-level contamination by isotopes with
a short half-life, the best course of action may be to simply allow the material to
naturally decay. Longer-lived isotopes should be cleaned up and properly disposed of,
because even a very low level of radiation can be life-threatening when in long exposure to it.

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High level contamination
High levels of contamination may pose major risks to people and the environment. People
can be exposed to potentially lethal radiation levels, both externally and internally, from the
spread of contamination following an accident (or a deliberate initiation) involving large
quantities of radioactive material. The biological effects of external exposure to radioactive
contamination are generally the same as those from an external radiation source not involving
radioactive materials, such as x-ray machines, and are dependent on the absorbed dose.
Biological effects
The biological effects of internally deposited radionuclides depend greatly on the activity and
the biodistribution and removal rates of the radionuclide, which in turn depends on its
chemical form. The biological effects may also depend on the chemical toxicity of the
deposited material, independent of its radioactivity. Some radionuclides may be generally
distributed throughout the body and rapidly removed, as is the case with tritiated water. Some
organs concentrate certain elements and hence radionuclide variants of those elements. This
action may lead to much lower removal rates. For instance, the thyroid gland takes up a large
percentage of any iodine that enters the body. If large quantities of radioactive iodine are
inhaled or ingested, the thyroid may be impaired or destroyed, while other tissues are affected
to a lesser extent. Radioactive iodine is a common fission product; it was a major component
of the radiation released from the Chernobyl disaster, leading to nine fatal cases of
pediatric thyroid cancer and hypothyroidism. On the other hand, radioactive iodine is used in
the diagnosis and treatment of many diseases of the thyroid precisely because of the thyroid's
selective uptake of iodine.

2.7:- NOISE POLLUTION AND HUMAN HEALTH

Noise pollution is excessive, displeasing human, animal or machine-created environmental
noise that disrupts the activity or balance of human or animal life. The word noise comes
from the Latin word nauseas, meaning seasickness. This all happened during the 1950s.
The source of most outdoor noise worldwide is mainly construction and transportation
systems, including motor vehicle noise, aircraft noise and rail noise. Poor urban planning may
give rise to noise pollution, since side-by-side industrial and residential buildings can result in
noise pollution in the residential area.
Indoor and outdoor noise pollution sources include car alarms, emergency service sirens,
mechanical equipment, fireworks, compressed air horns, grounds keeping equipment, barking

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dogs, appliances, lighting hum, audio entertainment systems, and electric megaphones, and
loud people.
Effects

2.7.1:- Human health

Noise health effects are both health and behavioral in nature. The unwanted sound is called
noise. This unwanted sound can damage physiological and psychological health. Noise
pollution can cause annoyance and aggression, hypertension, high stress levels, tinnitus,
hearing loss, sleep disturbances, and other harmful effects. Furthermore, stress and
hypertension are the leading causes to health problems, whereas tinnitus can lead to
forgetfulness, severe depression and at times panic attacks.
Chronic exposure to noise may cause noise-induced hearing loss. Older males exposed to
significant occupational noise demonstrate significantly reduced hearing sensitivity than their
non-exposed peers, though differences in hearing sensitivity decrease with time and the two
groups are indistinguishable by age 79. A comparison of Maaban tribesmen, who were
insignificantly exposed to transportation or industrial noise, to a typical U.S. population
showed that chronic exposure to moderately high levels of environmental noise contributes to
hearing loss.
High noise levels can contribute to cardiovascular effects and exposure to moderately high
levels during a single eight hour period causes a statistical rise in blood pressure of five to ten
points and an increase in stress and vasoconstriction leading to the increased blood
pressure noted above as well as to increased incidence of coronary artery disease.
Noise pollution is also a cause of annoyance. A 2005 study by Spanish researchers
found that in urban areas households are willing to pay approximately four Euros per
decibel per year for noise reduction.

CHEMICAL BASIS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINANTS

Environmental contaminants

Environmental contaminants are chemicals that are present in the environment in which the
food is grown, harvested, transported, stored, packaged, processed, and consumed. The
physical contact of the food with its environment results in its contamination. Possible
sources of contamination are:
Air: Radionuclides (137Caesium, 90Strontium), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH).
Water: Arsenic, mercury.

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Soil: cadmium, nitrates, perchlorates.
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) , dioxins, and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE) are
ubiquitous chemicals, which are present in air, water, soil, and the entire biosphere.
Packaging-materials: antimony, tin, lead, perfluorooctanoic-acid (PFOA), semicarbazide,
benzophenone, isopropylthioxanthone (ITX), bisphenol A.
Processing/cooking equipment: copper, or other metal chips, lubricants, cleaning and
sanitizing agents.
Naturally occurring toxins: mycotoxins, phytohaemagglutinin, pyrrolizidine alkaloids,
grayanotoxin, mushroom toxins, scombrotoxin (histamine), ciguatera, shellfish toxins
(see shellfish poisoning), and tetrodotoxin, among many others.
Banned pesticides, carcinogens

There are many cases of banned pesticides or carcinogens found in foods.

Greenpeace exposed in 2006 in China that 25% of surveyed supermarkets agricultural
products contained banned pesticides. Over 70% of tomatoes that tested were found to
have the banned pesticide Lindane, and almost 40% of the samples had a mix of three or
more types of pesticides. Fruits were also tested in this
investigation. Tangerines, strawberries and Kyofung grapes samples were found
contaminated by banned pesticides, including the highly toxic Methamidophos. These
fruits can also be found in Hong Kong market. Greenpeace says there exists no
comprehensive monitoring on fruit produce in the Hong Kong as of 2006.
In India, soft drinks were found contaminated with high levels of pesticides and
insecticides, including lindane, DDT, Malathion and chlorpyrifos.
News of Formaldehyde, a carcinogen was found in Vietnamese national dish, Pho,
broke in 2007 Vietnam food scare. Vegetables and fruits were also found to have banned
pesticides. "Health agencies have known that Vietnamese soy sauce, the country's second
most popular sauce after fish sauce, has been chock full of cancer agents since at least
2001," thundered the Thanh Nien daily. "Why didn't anyone tell us?" The carcinogen in
Asian sauces is 3-MCPD and its metabolite 1, 3-DCP, which has been an ongoing
problem before 2000 affecting multiple continents.
2005 Indonesia food scare, carcinogenic formaldehyde was added as a preservative to
noodles, tofu, salted fish, and meatballs.

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2.8:- FOOD CONTAMINATION AND HEALTH
Food contamination refers to the presence in food with harmful chemicals and
microorganisms which can cause consumer illness, food borne illness. A separate issue
is genetically modified food, or the presence in foods of ingredients from genetically
modified organisms, also referred to as a form of food contamination.

Impact of chemical contaminants

The impact of chemical contaminants on consumer health and well-being is often apparent
only after many years of prolonged exposure at low levels (e.g. cancer). Chemical
contaminants present in foods are often unaffected by thermal processing (unlike most
microbiological agents). Chemical contaminants can be classified according to the source of
contamination and the mechanism by which they enter the food product.
Agrochemicals

Agrochemicals are chemicals used in agricultural practices and animal husbandry with the
intent to increase crops and reduce costs. Such agents include pesticides
(e.g. insecticides, herbicides, rodenticides), plant growth regulators, veterinary drugs
(e.g. nitro furan, fluoroquinolones, malachite green, chloramphenicol), and bovine
somatotropin (rBST).

2.9:- URBAN WASTES:-

Urban wastes that result in residential areas cause contamination of the soil at places where
the wastes are not properly disposed.Wastes like glass, plastic, human excreta, fuel residues,
metals and vehicular products are common urban wastes.
EFFECTS:-

i. Urban wastes dirty residential areas, resulting in the growth of insects and pathogens.
ii. They are harmful to human health.

2.9.1:- WASTE DISPOSAL AND HEALTH

2.9.1.1:- Health impacts of solid waste
Modernization and progress has had its share of disadvantages and one of the main aspects of
concern is the pollution it is causing to the earth – be it land, air, and water. With increase in
the global population and the rising demand for food and other essentials, there has been a

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rise in the amount of waste being generated daily by each household. This waste is ultimately
thrown into municipal waste collection centres from where it is collected by the area
municipalities to be further thrown into the landfills and dumps. However, either due to
resource crunch or inefficient infrastructure, not all of this waste gets collected and
transported to the final dumpsites. If at this stage the management and disposal is improperly
done, it can cause serious impacts on health and problems to the surrounding environment.
Waste that is not properly managed, especially excreta and other liquid and solid waste from
households and the community, are a serious health hazard and lead to the spread of
infectious diseases. Unattended waste lying around attracts flies, rats, and other creatures that
in turn spread disease. Normally it is the wet waste that decomposes and releases a bad odor.
This leads to unhygienic conditions and thereby to a rise in the health problems. The plague
outbreak in Surat is a good example of a city suffering due to the callous attitude of the local
body in maintaining cleanliness in the city. Plastic waste is another cause for ill health. Thus
excessive solid waste that is generated should be controlled by taking certain preventive
measures.
2.9.1.2:- Impacts of solid waste on health
The group at risk from the unscientific disposal of solid waste include – the population in
areas where there is no proper waste disposal method, especially the pre-school children;
waste workers; and workers in facilities producing toxic and infectious material. Other high-
risk group includes population living close to a waste dump and those, whose water supply
has become contaminated either due to waste dumping or leakage from landfill sites.
Uncollected solid waste also increases risk of injury, and infection.
In particular, organic domestic waste poses a serious threat, since they ferment, creating
conditions favourable to the survival and growth of microbial pathogens. Direct handling of
solid waste can result in various types of infectious and chronic diseases with the waste
workers and the rag pickers being the most vulnerable.
Exposure to hazardous waste can affect human health, children being more vulnerable to
these pollutants. In fact, direct exposure can lead to diseases through chemical exposure as
the release of chemical waste into the environment leads to chemical poisoning. Many studies
have been carried out in various parts of the world to establish a connection between health
and hazardous waste.
Waste from agriculture and industries can also cause serious health risks. Other than this, co-
disposal of industrial hazardous waste with municipal waste can expose people to chemical
and radioactive hazards. Uncollected solid waste can also obstruct storm water runoff,

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resulting in the forming of stagnant water bodies that become the breeding ground of disease.
Waste dumped near a water source also causes contamination of the water body or the ground
water source. Direct dumping of untreated waste in rivers, seas, and lakes results in the
accumulation of toxic substances in the food chain through the plants and animals that feed
on it.
Disposal of hospital and other medical waste requires special attention since this can create
major health hazards. This waste generated from the hospitals, health care centres, medical
laboratories, and research centers such as discarded syringe needles, bandages, swabs,
plasters, and other types of infectious waste are often disposed with the regular non-infectious
waste.
Waste treatment and disposal sites can also create health hazards for the neighborhood.
Improperly operated incineration plants cause air pollution and improperly managed and
designed landfills attract all types of insects and rodents that spread disease. Ideally these
sites should be located at a safe distance from all human settlement. Landfill sites should be
well lined and walled to ensure that there is no leakage into the nearby ground water sources.

2.10:- OCCUPATION AND HEALTH

Occupational hazards associated with waste handling
Infections
Skin and blood infections resulting from direct contact with waste, and from
infected wounds.
Eye and respiratory infections resulting from exposure to infected dust, especially
during landfill operations.
Different diseases that results from the bites of animals feeding on the waste.
Intestinal infections that are transmitted by flies feeding on the waste.
Chronic diseases
Incineration operators are at risk of chronic respiratory diseases, including cancers resulting
from exposure to dust and hazardous compounds.
1. Bone and muscle disorders resulting from the handling of heavy containers.
2. Infecting wounds resulting from contact with sharp objects.
3. Poisoning and chemical burns resulting from contact with small amounts of
hazardous chemical waste mixed with general waste.
4. Burns and other injuries resulting from occupational accidents at waste disposal
sites or from methane gas explosion at landfill sites.

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Recycling too carries health risks if proper precautions are not taken. Workers working with
waste containing chemical and metals may experience toxic exposure. Disposal of health-care
wastes require special attention since it can create major health hazards, such as Hepatitis B
and C, through wounds caused by discarded syringes. Rag pickers and others, who are
involved in scavenging in the waste dumps for items that can be recycled, may sustain
injuries and come into direct contact with these infectious items.
Diseases
Certain chemicals if released untreated, e.g. cyanides, mercury, and polychlorinated
biphenyls are highly toxic and exposure can lead to disease or death. Some studies have
detected excesses of cancer in residents exposed to hazardous waste. Many studies have been
carried out in various parts of the world to establish a connection between health and
hazardous waste.
The role of plastics
The unhygienic use and disposal of plastics and its effects on human health has become a
matter of concern. Colored plastics are harmful as their pigment contains heavy metals that
are highly toxic. Some of the harmful metals found in plastics are copper, lead, chromium,
cobalt, selenium, and cadmium. In most industrialized countries, colour plastics have been
legally banned. In India, the Government of Himachal Pradesh has banned the use of plastics
and so has Ladakh district. Other states should emulate their example.

Preventive measures
Proper methods of waste disposal have to be undertaken to ensure that it does not affect the
environment around the area or cause health hazards to the people living there.
At the household-level proper segregation of waste has to be done and it should be ensured
that all organic matter is kept aside for composting, which is undoubtedly the best method for
the correct disposal of this segment of the waste. In fact, the organic part of the waste that is
generated decomposes more easily, attracts insects and causes disease. Organic waste can be
composted and then used as a fertilizer.
Toxic waste is also known as hazardous waste. This type of waste is produced by industries
and corporations and individual households alike. According to SGP Partnership (2008),
hazardous waste is defined as a waste that has properties that could potentially be dangerous
to people or the environment. There are a vast number of hazardous wastes and they can take
many forms including solids, gases, sludges or liquids. Hazardous wastes can be anything

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from improperly discarded cleaning fluid or insecticide to industrial or manufacturing wastes.
When improperly disposed of, these wastes cause a myriad of health risks.
Improper Toxic Waste Disposal
Improper toxic waste disposal occurs when individuals or industries do not discard a toxic
product in the required way. The EPA sets rules for the discarding of toxic materials. If
the EPA standards for eliminating waste products are not followed, then improper toxic
waste disposal is occurring. Examples of improper toxic waste disposal include throwing
toxic items into the trash, pouring toxic items down the drain, pouring toxic elements into
ditches or onto nearby unoccupied property, burning the toxic material, or dumping and
or burying the toxic waste. Storing a hazardous waste product for an extended period of
time is not advisable either.
Proper disposal recommendations should be followed for any potentially hazardous
wastes. This includes following all label instructions for discarding, using the entire
product completely before disposal, and recycling toxic products that are recyclable.
You should aim to avoid improper disposal of toxic waste products to help ensure
people's health will not be effected by toxic waste pollution or other toxic exposure,
which has been known to create many health problems in the past (the North Carolina
Cooperative Extension Service, 1996).
Effects of Improper Waste Disposal
Many health problems have been associated with improper toxic waste disposal on behalf
of companies and individuals alike. Many people who present health conditions have
been exposed to high levels of toxic waste over an extended period of time through the
pollution of groundwater, air and soil. The most common health problems include birth
defects and cancers.
Arsenic Exposure
Arsenic is one common toxic waste that has caused a myriad of health problems. This
toxic waste is most often disposed of by hospitals or manufacturing plants. Any contact
with this toxic substance is dangerous. Arsenic can cause a number of health conditions in
humans when it is improperly disposed of. Some of these conditions include certain types
of cancers. Depending on the type of contact with this chemical, arsenic can cause skin
cancer, bladder cancer, kidney cancer, lung cancer and cancer of the liver. Arsenic
exposure can also cause internal bleeding, inflammation of the heart, changes in blood
vessels in the heart and brain, gastrointestinal problems, kidney poisoning that leads to

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renal failure, elevation of liver enzymes, destruction of nerve cells leading to systemic
disorders, spontaneous abortions, congenital malformations, irritation to the lining of the
eyes/nose/throat, bone marrow depression, and changes in skin pigmentation or skin
thickening (according to the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 2008).
Dioxin Exposure
Dioxins are chlorinated hydrocarbons. Many plastics contain dioxins, so improperly
disposing of these plastic substances or burning these substances can lead to toxic waste
exposure. Not all dioxins contain the same levels of toxicity, but precaution should be
taken when dealing with any materials that contain dioxins due to the dangers associated
with the chemical, since all dioxins are known to some degree to cause health issues.
Some of these health issues include biochemical effects and cellular effects. These
cellular effects include apoptosis, hypoplasia, hyperplasia, metaplasia, and neoplasia.
Dioxcins are also carcinogenic, which means they can cause all sorts of cancers in
individuals on their own without the need for another toxic element to aid the process
along. Other confirmed human health issues known to be caused by dioxins include a
skin disorder known as chloracne, mild liver damage, and peripheral nerve damage.
Studies are still being done as of 2009 to confirm that other health issues such as
respiratory cancers, prostate cancer, malignant tumors of the bone marrow, liver
dysfunction, photosensitive skin, type 2 diabetes, neurobehavorial development in
infants, and men less likely to father a male child are caused by exposure to dioxins
(the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 2008).
Lead Exposure
Improperly disposing of lead materials, lead paint or other products that contain lead is
another common example of improper toxic waste disposal. Exposure to lead has been
known to cause many different health issues in individuals of all ages. To understand the
list of possible health affects, you must first understand the acronyms for certain
conditions. ALAD equals aminolevulinic acid dehydratase. EP stands for erythrocyte
porphyrin. The acronym NCV stands for nerve conduction velocity. Finally, the acronym
GFR signifies glomerular filtration rate.
Particular abnormal lead levels in children have been shown to cause health issues
such as depressed ALAD activity, neurodevelopmental effects, sexual maturation,
depressed levels of vitamin D, elevated EP, depressed NCV, depressed hemoglobin,
and colic. In adults, the health issues proven to be caused by lead exposure include

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 depressed GFR, elevated blood pressure, elevated EP in females, enzymuria or
proteinuria, peripheral neuropathy, neurobehavioral effects, altered thyroid hormone,
reduced fertility, and depressed hemoglobin. In elderly individuals, the health issues
to be caused by lead exposure include depressed ALAD and neurobehavioral effects
(according to the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 2008).

2.11:- STRESS AND HEALTH

2.11.1 What is Stress and its causes?
Stress is any change in your normal routine or health. Stress occurs when bad things happen,
as well happy things. Getting a raise or promotion is stress, just as getting fired from your job
is stress.
Speculative changes cause just as much stress as veritable changes. Pensiveness or anguish
about whether you will get that new job is stress the same as being offered a new position is
stress.
Women are particularly susceptible to stress caused by hormonal changes. During puberty,
your menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and menopause your hormone levels fluctuate consistently
and cause stress.
Emotional and physical changes that happen in your life, illnesses, and environmental
components such as extreme heat, cold, or altitude, and toxins cause stress. Pushing your
body too hard at work or at play will soon deplete your body of the energy it needs to restore
itself and result in your becoming over stressed.
2.11.2 Stress Related Illness
Science is constantly learning about the impact that stress has on your overall health. Stress is
or may be a contributing factor in everything from backaches and insomnia to cancer and
chronic fatigue syndrome (many people believe that CFS and fibromyalgia are the same
illness).
Stress is often a key factor when women experience either absence of menstruation or
abnormal bleeding. Hormonal imbalances caused by stress may proliferate the symptoms of
fibroid tumors and endometriosis, as well as make pregnancy difficult to achieve for couples
with fertility problems.
Heart disease is the number one killer of American women. High blood pressure, heart
attacks, heart palpitations, and stroke may be stress related cardiovascular conditions. Some
women experience changes in their sexuality and encounter various sexual dysfunctions such
as loss of desire and vaginal dryness as a result of stress.

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Often people feel the effects of stress as fatigue, various aches and pains, headaches, or
as emotional disorders such as anxiety, depression, and sleep disturbances. Stress affects
others by causing gastrointestinal disorders such as ulcers, lower abdominal cramps, colitis,
and irritable bowel syndrome.
Frequently people under the effects of over stress will have more colds and infections due to
lowered immune system responses. Stress can initiate dermatological conditions such as itchy
skin and rashes.

2.11.3:- Stress and Health: Implications of Chronic Stress

When faced with chronic stress and an over activated autonomic nervous system, people
begin to see physical symptoms. The first symptoms are relatively mild, like chronic
headaches and increased susceptibility to colds. With more exposure to chronic stress,
however, more serious health problems may develop. These stress-influenced conditions
include, but are not limited to:
depression
diabetes
hair loss
heart disease
hyperthyroidism
obesity
obsessive-compulsive or anxiety disorder
sexual dysfunction
tooth and gum disease
ulcers
cancer (possibly)
In fact, most it’s been estimated that as many as 90% of doctor’s visits are for symptoms that
are at least partially stress-related

2.12:- MALNUTRITION
With high confidence, projected that malnutrition would increase due to climate change. This
link is associated with climate variability and change (Confalonieri et al., 2007). Drought
reduces variety in diets and reduces overall consumption. This can lead
to micronutrient deficiencies.

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The World Health Organization (WHO) conducted a regional and global assessment to
quantify the amount of premature morbidity and mortality due to a range of factors, including
climate change. Projections were made over future climate change impacts. Limited
adjustments for adaptation were included in the estimates based on these projections.
Projected relative risks attributable to climate change in 2030 varied by health outcome and
region. Risks were largely negative, with most of the projected disease burden due to
increases in diarrhoeal disease and malnutrition. These increases were primarily in low-
income populations already experiencing a large burden of disease.

2.13:- EXTREME EVENTS

With high confidence, Confalonieri et al. (2007) projected that climate change would
increase the number of people suffering from death, disease and injury from heat
waves, floods, storms, fires and droughts.
Floods and weather disasters
Floods are low-probability, high-impact events that can overwhelm physical infrastructure
and human communities (Confalonieri et al., 2007). Major storm and flood disasters have
occurred in the last two decades.
The impact of weather disasters is considerable and unequally distributed. For example,
natural disasters have been shown to result in increased domestic violence against - and post-
traumatic stress disorders in women. In terms of deaths and populations affected, floods and
tropical cyclones have the greatest impact in South Asia and Latin America. Vulnerability to
weather disasters depends on the attributes of the person at risk, including where they live
and their age, as well as other social and environmental factors. High-density populations in
low-lying coastal regions experience a high health burden from weather disasters.
Heat waves
Hot days, hot nights and heat waves have become more frequent .Heatwaves are associated
with marked short-term increases in mortality. For example, in August 2003, a heat wave in
Europe resulted in excess mortality in the range of 35,000 total deaths.
Heat-related morbidity and mortality is projected to increase .The health burden could be
relatively small for moderate heat waves in temperate regions, because deaths occur primarily
in susceptible persons.
Drought
The effects of drought on health include deaths, malnutrition, infectious
diseases and respiratory diseases (Confalonieri et al., 2007) Countries within the

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"Meningitis Belt" in semi-arid sub-Saharan Africa experience the
highest endemicity and epidemic frequency of meningococcal meningitis in Africa, although
other areas in the Rift Valley, the Great Lakes, and southern Africa are also affected
(Confalonieri et al., 2007). The spatial distribution, intensity, and seasonality of
meningococcal (epidemic) meningitis appear to be strongly linked to climate and
environmental factors, particularly drought. The cause of this link is not fully understood.
Fires
In some regions, changes in temperature and precipitation are projected to increase the
frequency and severity of fire events Forest and bush fires cause burns, damage from smoke
inhalation and other injuries.

2.14:- DISEASE VECTORS

With high confidence, projected that climate change would continue to change the range of
some infectious disease vectors. Vector-borne diseases (VBD) are infections transmitted by
the bite of infected arthropod species, such as mosquitoes, ticks, triatomine bugs, sandflies,
and blackflies. There is some evidence of climate-change-related shifts in the distribution of
tick vectors of disease, of some (non-malarial) mosquito vectors in Europe and North
America. Climate change has also been implicated in changes in the breeding and migration
dates of several bird species. Several species of wild bird can act as carriers of
human pathogens as well as of vectors of infectious agents.
Dengue
It is possibled that climate change will increase the number of people at risk of dengue
(Confalonieri et al., 2007) Based on the expert judgement of Confalonieri et al. (2007), this
projection had about a two-in-ten chance of being correct. Dengue is the world's most
important vector-borne viral disease () several studies have reported associations between
dengue and climate; however, these associations are not entirely consistent.
Malaria
The spatial distribution, intensity of transmission, and seasonalty of malaria is influenced by
climate in Sub-saharan Africa .Rainfall can be a limiting factor for mosquito populations and
there is some evidence of reductions in transmission associated with decadal decreases in
rainfall. The effects of observed climate change on the geographical distribution of malaria
and its transmission intensity in highland regions remains controversial. There is no clear
evidence that malaria has been affected by climate change in South America or in continental

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regions of the Russian Federation. There is still much uncertainty about the potential impact
of climate change on malaria at local and global scales.
Other infectious diseases
There is good evidence that diseases transmitted by rodents sometimes increase during heavy
rainfall and flooding because of altered patterns of human-pathogen-rodent contact
With medium confidence, Confalonieri et al. (2007) concluded that climate change would
increase the burden of diarrhoeal diseases. Childhood mortality due to diarrhoea in low-
income countries, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa, remains high (., This is despite
improvements in care. Several studies have shown that transmission of enteric pathogens is
higher during the rainy season. Some studies have found that higher temperature was strongly
associated with increased episodes of diarrhoeal disease in adults and children in Peru. The
WHO study, referred to earlier, projected that climate change would increase the burden of
diarrhoeal diseases in low-income regions by approximately 2 to 5% in 2020

2.15:- GROUND-LEVEL OZONE

With high confidence, projected that climate change would increase cardio-respiratory
morbidity and mortality associated with ground-level ozone. Ground-level ozone is both
naturally occurring and is the primary constituent of urban smog. Ozone in smog is formed
through chemical reactions involving nitrogen oxides and other compounds. The reaction is
a photochemical reaction, meaning that it involves electromagnetic radiation, and occurs in
the presence of bright sunshine and high temperatures. Exposure to elevated concentrations
of ozone is associated with increased hospital admissions for pneumonia, chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease, asthma, allergic rhinitis and other respiratory diseases, and with
premature mortality.
Background levels of ground-level ozone have risen since pre-industrial times because of
increasing emissions of methane, carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides This trend is
expected to continue into the mid-21st century.

5.16:- COLD-WAVES
It is expected that climate change will bring some health benefits .It is expected that these
benefits will be outweighed by negative climate change effects. Cold-waves continue to be a
problem in northern latitudes, where very low temperatures can be reached in a few hours and
extend over long periods .Reductions in cold-deaths due to climate change are projected to be
greater than increases in heat-related deaths in the UK

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2.17:- ACTIVITIES
1. Find out the sources of biological and chemical pollutants in air, water and land in
your area and relate the exposure of pollutants with the health problems prevalent in
the people.

2. Make a list of pollutants that you are often exposed to rank, them according to the
amount of routine exposure .in view of their acute and chronic effects make a
judgement if they are affecting your health.

3. Visit some of the chemical factories (you may refer to the list of hazardous
factories given in the unit, find out the levels of exposure of pollutants ants and study
the occupational hazards faced by the people working there. Suggest some of the
ways to reduce the exposure levels.

4. Find out which among the following exist in your town, make a map to understand
their location and determine the threat they pose to population at large.
i) Nuclear power plants
ii) Thermal power plants
iii) Hydroelectric power generation
iv) Incinerators
v) Mining particularly of radioactive elements
vi) Pesticides industries
vii) Major chemical industries

5. From the data of infectious and non infectious diseases prevalent in your area find
out if they are because of negligent dumping of waste in the environment .try to
educate people about it and guide them from the role they can play to protect the
health of community.

6. Observe the waste including medical waste disposal method practiced in your area
and envisage the threat they pose to the health of segment of population at large.
Formulate a method that would work to avoid health dangers from waste disposal.

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2.18- LET US SUM -UP

The emerging new health problems of present times are owing to the deterioration
of the quality of our environment. The poor and the middle classes of the
developing world will suffer from infectious diseases of the past .They are further
burdened with chemical pollution of air ,water and food ,besides their work and
living condition .The effects particularly on malnourished population are severe
because pollution not only deteriorates their health but also reduces their life span
.
Statistics shown that an increase in the release of toxic pollutants into air from
vehicles ,thermal plants ,chemical industries ,incinerators, dumping and open
burning of wastes are linked to an increase in respiratory problems and
cardiovascular diseases in the population exposed to them .The children and the
elderly are most effected.

The cases of Minamata and itai-itai and victims of dioxins ,Bhopal gas tragedy
,DDT ,endosulfan ,Chernobyl disaster ,nuclear bomb etc.are indicators from the
past, of the dangers that lie ahead due to increase in trend of chemical and
radioactive pollution of air ,water and soil in country .now killer diseases like
cancer are also on rise due to increase in carcinogenic chemicals and ionization
radiation .

The scarcity of water is alarming in the present times because no water can be
considered safe for drinking including underground water the cases of fluorosis
and underground poisoning in India are a cause of concern because a large
majority of the uneducated population rely on underground water.

The unplanned developmental project and mismanaged environment have brought

in Japanese encephalitis, filariasis, knock knees, fluorosis, return of malaria,
dengue fever etc.

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 Besides the problem of pollution the urban dwellers are faced with the problems
of occupational environment and excessive stress, the latter triggers many
problems such as asthama, ulcer, hyper tension, depression, depression, etc.

Finally the global warming is changing the pattern of climate and consequently
affecting the diseases patterns in the world. In this regard spread of malaria in
new regions is the biggest threat world over .In spite f major efforts made by the
world community , it has not been possible to control malaria

2.19 FURTHER READING

1. Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund, Human Health Evaluation Manual,

Office of Emergency and Remedial Response, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington D.C. 20450

2. Facing up to “invisible pollution”

3. 3.International Atomic Energy Agency (2007). IAEA Safety Glossary:

Terminology Used in Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection. Vienna:
IAEA. ISBN 92-0-100707-8.

4. International Atomic Energy Agency (2005). Environmental and Source

Monitoring for Purposes of Radiation Protection, IAEA Safety Standards
Series No. RS–G-1.8. Vienna: IAEA.

5. .International Atomic Energy Agency (2010). Programmes and Systems for

Source and Environmental Radiation Monitoring. Safety Reports Series No.
64.. Vienna: IAEA. pp. 234. ISBN 978-92-0-112409-8.

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