UNIT 1.

RAW MATERIAL PREPARATION

At the time of harvest or slaughter, most foods are likely to contain contaminants,
to have components which are inedible or to have variable physical characteristics (for
example shape, size or colour). It is therefore necessary to perform several unit operations
of cleaning, sorting, grading or peeling to ensure that foods with a uniformly high quality
are prepared for subsequent processing. There are mechanical separation procedures
which are applied near the beginning of a process to upgrade the quality of the raw
material. They are highly cost-effective method of improving the overall quality of
batches of food.
Cleaning
Cleaning is the unit operation in which contaminating materials are removed from
the food and separated to leave the surface of the food in a suitable condition for further
processing.
Peeling fruits and vegetables, skinning meat or descaling fish may also be
considered as cleaning operations. In vegetable processing, blanching also helps to clean
the product.
Cleaning should take place at the earliest opportunity in a food process both to
prevent damage to subsequent processing equipment by stones, bones or metals, and to
prevent time and money from being spent on processing contaminants which are then
discarded. In addition, the early removal of small quantities of foods contaminated by
micro-organisms prevents the subsequent loss of the remaining bulk by microbial growth
during the storage or delay prior to processing. Cleaning is thus an effective method of
reducing food wastage, improving the economics of processing and protecting the
consumers.
Cleaning is categorized into wet procedures (for example soaking, spraying and
flotation washing), and dry procedures (separation by air, magnetism or physical method).
The main groups of equipment used for wet cleaning are: spray washers, brush
washer, drum or piston washer or flotation tanks. And for dry cleaning are: air classifiers,
magnetic separators and separators based on screening foods.
 UNIT 2. RAW MATERIAL PREPARATION (continued)
Wet cleaning
Wet cleaning is more effective than dry methods for removing soil from root crops
or dust and pesticide residues from soft fruits or vegetables. It is also dustless and causes
less damage to foods than dry methods. Different combinations of detergents and
sterilants at different temperatures allow flexibility in operation. However, the use of
warm cleaning water may accelerate chemical and microbial spoilage unless carefully
control is exercised over washing times and subsequent delays before processing.
Furthermore, wet procedures produce large volumes of effluent, often with concentrations
of dissolved and suspended solids. There is then a requirement both to purchase clean
water and to pay for high effluent disposal charges. To reduce costs, recirculated, filtered
and chlorinated water is used whenever possible.
Dry cleaning
Dry cleaning procedures are used for smaller products, have greater mechanical
strength and possess a lower moisture content (for example grain and nuts). After
cleaning, the surfaces are dry, to aid preservation for further drying. Dry procedures
generally involve smaller cheaper equipment than wet procedures do and produce a
concentrated dry effluent which may be disposed of more cheaply. In addition, plant
cleaning is simpler and chemical and microbial deterioration of the food is reduced.
However, additional capital expenditure may be necessary to prevent the creation of dust
that not only creates a health hazard but also recontaminates the product.
Classifiers use a moving stream of air to separate contaminants from foods.
Classifiers are widely used in harvesting machines to separate heavy contaminants (for
example stones) and light contaminants (for example leaves, stalks and husks) from grain
or vegetables.
Separation of contaminants from foods based on physical characteristics is possible
when the food has a regular well-defined shape. For example, round foods (peas,
blackcurrants and rape-seed) are separated from contaminants by exploiting their ability
to roll down an inclined conveyor belt. Contaminants (for example weed seeds in rape
seeds or snails in blackcurrants) are carried up the conveyor and separated. A disc
separator consists of a series of vertical metal discs with precisely engineered indentations
in the sides. It is used to separate grain from weed seeds. The indentations match the
shape of the grain and as the discs rotate, the grain is lifted out and removed. Discs may
be changed to separate barley, oats, rice or wheat. Screens are also used to remove
contaminants from foods.
 UNIT 3. EXPRESSION
The main applications of expression are in the extraction of oils and juices. It is
frequently combined with size reduction to maximize the yield of product. Components
are extracted from plant materials either for direct consumption (for example, fruit juices)
or for use in subsequent processing (for example sugar and vegetable oils). These
materials are located within the cell structure of the plants and it is necessary to disrupt
the cells in order to release them.
In oil-bearing seeds the oil is found inside cells in small droplets. However, a
single type of equipment is not suited to all oil-seeds, owing to variation in oil content,
moisture content, porosity and solidity of the material, and the proportions of hulls in the
different oil-seeds. There are two methods of oil extraction: solvent extraction and
expression. Expression is achieved either in two stages (size reduction to produce a pulp,
followed by separation in a press) or in a single-stage, which both rupture the cells and
express the liquid. In general the single stage operation is more economical, permit higher
throughputs and has lower capital and operating costs, but for some products that are
especially hard (for example nuts) a two-stage expression is more effective.
Better extraction is achieved by heating, which reduces the oil viscosity, releases
oil from intact cells and removes moisture. Moisture lubricates the pulp during pressing
and causes a slower pressure increase and reduced oil yield. There is therefore optimum
pulp moisture content for each type of oil seed to obtain a maximum yield of oil.
In fruit processing (for example grape juice extraction for wine making, or apple or
citrus juices), the press should remove the maximum quantity of juice, without substantial
quantities of solids, or compounds from the skins that cause bitterness and browning. This
is achieved by the use of lower pressure and fewer pressings. It is also necessary to
increase the pressure slowly to avoid the formation of a dense impenetrable press cake, as
the solid material is easily deformed.
The factors that influence the yield liquid from a press include: the maturity and
growth conditions of the raw material, the extent of disruption of cell structure, the
resistance of the solids to mechanical deformation, the rate of increase in pressure, the
time of pressing and the thickness of the pressed solids.
 UNIT 4. SIZE REDUCTION
Size reduction is the unit operation in which the average size of solid pieces of
food is reduced by the application of grinding, compression or impact forces. The
production of powders and fine particles is also known as comminution. When applied to
the reduction in size of globules of immiscible liquids (for example oil globules in water)
size reduction is more frequently referred to as emulsification.
Size reduction has the following benefits in food processing.
(1) There is an increase in the surface-area-to-volume ratio of the food which
increases the rate of drying, heating or cooling and improves the efficiency and rate of
extraction of soluble components (for example juice extraction from cut fruit).
(2) When combined with screening, a pre-determined range of particle size is
produced which is important for the correct functional or processing properties of some
products (for example icing sugar, spices and cornstarch).
(3) A similar range of particle sizes allows more complete mixing of ingredients.
Size reduction and emulsification have little or no preservative effect. They are
used to improve the eating quality or suitability of foods for further processing and to
increase the range of products available. In some foods they may promote degradation by
the release of naturally occurring enzymes from damaged tissues, or by microbial activity
and oxidation at the increased area of exposed surfaces, unless other preservative
treatments are employed.
Different methods of size reduction are classified according to the particle size
range produced, as follows:
1- chopping, cutting, slicing and dicing:
(a) large to medium (stewing steak, cheese and sliced fruit for canning),
(b) medium to small (bacon, sliced beans and diced carrot), and
(c) small to granular (minced or shredded meat, flaked fish or nuts and shredded
vegetables)
2- milling to powders or pastes of increasing fineness (grated products, spices, flours, fruit
nectars, powdered sugar, starches, smooth pastes);
3- emulsification (mayonnaise, milk, essential oils, butter, and ice-cream).
 UNIT 5. CHILLING AND FREEZING
Chilling is the unit operation in which the temperature of a food is reduced to
between -1*C and 8*C. It is used to retard microbial spoilage, to prevent the growth of
pathogens, and to extend the shelf life of fresh and processed foods. It causes minimal
changes to flavours and nutritional properties of foods, and as a result, chilled foods are
perceived by consumers being "healthy" and "fresh". Chilling is often used in
combination with other unit operations (for example fermentation, irradiation or
pasteurisation) to extend the shelf life of mildly processed foods.
The successful supply of chilled foods to the consumer is heavily dependent on
sophisticated distribution system that involve chill stores, refrigerated transport and
chilled retail display cabinets. In particular, low-acid chilled foods, which are susceptible
to contamination by pathogenic bacteria (for example fresh and pre-cooked meats, pizzas
and unbaked dough) must be prepared and packaged under strictly controlled hygienic
conditions.
(1). -1*C to +1*C (fresh fish, meats, sausages and smoked meats and fish);
(2). 0*C to +5*C (pasteurised canned meats, milk, cream, yogurt, sandwiches,
pizzas, unbaked dough and pastry);
(3). 0*C to +8*C (fully cooked meats, cooked or uncooked cured meats, butter,
hard cheese and soft fruits).
There is a greater preservative effect when chilling is combined with control of the
composition of the storage atmosphere than that found using either unit operation alone.
A reduction in oxygen concentration and/ or increase in carbon dioxide concentration of
the storage atmosphere reduce the rate of respiration of fresh fruits and vegetables and
also inhibit microbial and insect growth.
Freezing is the unit operation in which the temperature of a food is reduced below
the freezing point, and a proportion of the water undergoes a change in state to form ice
crystals. The immobilization of water to ice and the resulting concentration of dissolved
solutes unfrozen water lower the water activity of the food. Preservation is achieved by
the combination of low temperatures, reduced water activity, and in some foods,
pretreatment by blanching. There are only small changes in nutritional or sensory qualities
when correct freezing and storage procedures are followed.
The major groups of commercially frozen foods are as follows:
(1) fruits (strawberries, raspberries, blackcurrants) either whole or pureed, or as juice
concentrates;
(2) vegetables (peas, green beans, sweet corn, spinach, sports and potatoes);
(3) fish fillets and seafoods (cold, plaice, shrimps, and crab meat) including fish fingers,
fish cakes or prepared dishes with an accompanying sauce;
(4) meats (beef, lamb, poultry) as boxed joints or cubes, and meat products (sausages,
beef burgers, reformed steaks).
(5) baked goods (bread, cakes, fruits and meat pies).
(6) prepared foods (pizzas, desserts, ice cream, and cooked-freeze dishes).
 UNIT 6. PROCESSING BY APPLICATION OF HEAT
Heat treatment is one of the most impotant methods used in food processing, not
only because of the desirable effects on eating quality (many foods are consumed in a
cooked form) but also because of the preservative effect on foods by the destruction of
enzyme and microbial activity, insects and parasites. The other main advantages of heat
processing are
(1) destruction of anti-nutritional components of foods,
(2) improvement in availability of some nutrients and
(3) relatively simple control of processing conditions.
In general, higher temperatures and longer periods of heating produce greater
destruction of micro-organisms and enzymes. Higher-temperature short-time processes
achieve the same extension of shelf life as treatments at lower temperatures and longer
time but permit greater retention of flavour and nutritive properties of foods.
Mild processes (for example blanching and pasteurization) cause fewer changes to
the eating quality of foods and may be combined with other operations (for example
freezing, or chilling) and packaging to achieve a longer shelf life. More severe heat
treatments (for example baking, roasting or frying) are intended to alter the eating quality
of foods and preservation is not the main purpose. To achieve a long shelf life by heating
alone, it is necessary to apply a relatively severe treatment (for example heat sterilization).
Another important effect of heating is the removal of water by evaporation
(concentrated by boiling and drying).
Evaporation is the partial removal water from liquid foods by boiling. Separation is
achieved by exploiting the difference in volatility between water and the solutes. It
contrasts with other methods of concentration (for example membrane concentration) in
which water is removed by exploiting in a difference in freezing point is employed. Most
concentrated foods are further processed before consumption.
UNIT 7. DEHYDRATION, FREEZE DRYING AND FREEZE CONCENTRATION
Dehydration (or drying) is defined as the application of heat under controlled
conditions to remove the majority of the water normally present in the food by
evaporation (or in the case of freeze drying by sublimation). This definition excludes
other unit operations which remove water from foods (for example mechanical
separations, membrane concentration, evaporation and baking as these normally remove
much less water than dehydration. The main purpose of dehydration is to extend the shelf
life of foods by a reduction in water activity. This inhibits microbial growth and enzyme
activity, but the product temperature is usually insufficient to cause inactivation. The
reduction in weight and bulk of food reduces transport and storage costs and, for some
types of food, provides greater variety and convenience for consumer. Drying causes
deterioration of both the eating quality and the nutritive value of food. The design and
operation of dehydration equipment aim to minimize these changes by selection of
appropriate drying conditions for individual foods. Examples of commercially important
dried foods are sugar, coffee, milk, potato, flour (including baker mixes), beans, pulses,
nuts, breakfast cereals, tea and spices.
Freeze drying and Freeze concentration. Dried and concentrated foods have a lot of
advantages. The heat used to dry foods or concentrate liquids by boiling removes water
and therefore preserves the foods by a reduction in water activity. However, the heat also
causes a loss of sensory and nutritional qualities. In freeze drying and freeze
concentration a similar preservative effect is achieved by reduction in water activity
without heating the food, and nutritional and sensory qualities are consequently better
retained. However, both operations are slower than conventional dehydration or
evaporation. Energy costs for refrigeration are high and, in freeze-drying, the production
of a partial vacuum is an additional expense. This, together with relatively high capital
investment, results in high production costs for freeze-dried and freeze-concentrated
foods. Freeze-drying is the more important operation commercially and is used to dry
expensive foods which have delicate aromas or textures (for example coffee, mushrooms,
herbs and spices, fruit juices, meat, sea-foods, vegetables, and complete meals for military
rations or expeditions). Products that are concentrated by freeze concentration include
fruit juices, vinegar and pickle liquors. Freeze concentration is also used to pre-
concentrate coffee extract prior to freeze-drying and to increase alcohol content of wine.
 UNIT 8. BATCH AND CONTINUOUS PROCESSING
Food is processed either in discrete batches or in a continuous operation, and this
is reflected in the design of processing equipment. In general the advantages of batch
processing are as follows:
(1) greater flexibility in being able to change product types or production rates;
(2) lower capital costs for equipment;
(3) simple operation and control.
The main disadvantages are:
(1) higher labour costs;
(2) higher operating costs for energy and water and less efficient use of materials and
energy;
(3) higher floor space requirement;
(4) lower product uniformity.
Batch processing is used when regular changes in product formulation are required
throughout the day or week, when small quantities of food are produced, or when
production is intermittent throughout the year and the higher capital costs of continuous
equipment cannot be justified.
Conversely, continuous operation has lower flexibility although developments in
automatic control have improved the ease and speed of changeover to different products
or production rates. Capital cost are higher than batch equipment, but saving energy,
space and permit a rapid back of the capital costs provided high production rates can be
maintained and plant utilization is high. Processing is more easily controlled, and product
quality and uniformity are therefore improved. Continuous processing is used when there
is sufficient demand for a product to permit high production rates for a substantial part of
the working day, throughout most of the year.
 UNIT 9. FERMENTATION, MIXING AND FORMING
In food fermentation, the controlled action of selected microorganisms is used to
alter the texture of foods, preserve foods by production of acids or alcohol, or to produce
subtle flavours or aromas, which increase the quality and value of raw materials. Today
the preservation of foods is supplemented by other unit operations (for example chilling
or pasteurization and packaging). The main advantages of fermentation as a method of
food processing are
(1) the use of mild conditions of pH and temperature which maintain (and often
improve) the nutritional properties.
(2) the production of foods which have flavours or textures that can not be
achieved by other methods.
(3) low energy consumption due to the mild operating conditions,
(4) relatively low capital and operating costs and
(5) generally simple technology.
Mixing (or blending) is a unit operation in which a uniform mixture is obtained
from two or more components, by dispersing one within the other(s). The larger
component is sometimes called the continuous phase and the smaller component the
dispersed phrase by analogy with emulsions. Mixing has no preservative effect and is
intended solely as a processing aid or to alter the eating quality of foods. It has very wide
applications in many food industries where it is used to combine ingredients to achieve
different functional properties or sensory characteristics.
Forming is the unit operation in which foods that have viscosity or dough-like
texture are moulded into a variety of shapes and sizes often immediately after a mixing
operation. It is used as a processing aid to increase variety and convenience in baked
goods, confectionery and snack foods. It has no direct effect on a shelf life nutritional
value of foods. Close control over the size of formed pieces is critical (for example to
control the rate of heat transfer to the center of baked foods to control the weight of larger
items of food (for example loaves) and to increase the uniformity of smaller foods (for
example biscuits confectionery and snack foods) and hence to control fill weight.
 UNIT 10. PACKAGING
Packaging is an integral part of food processing. It performs two mains functions:
to advertise foods at the point of sale to protect food, and to extend the expected shelf life.
The main factors that cause deterioration of foods during storage are:
(1) mechanical forces (impact, vibration, compression or abrasion).
(2) climatic influences that cause physical or chemical changes (UV light, moisture
vapour, oxygen, temperature changes)
(3) contamination (by micro-organism, insects or soils) and
(4) tampering or adulteration
In addition the package should not influence the product (for example by migration
of toxic compounds by reactions between the pack and the food or by selection of harmful
micro-organisms in the packaged food). Other requirements of packaging are economical
operation on the production line resistance to breakage (for example fractures, tears, or
dents caused by filling and closing equipment loading/ unloading or transportation) and
minimum total cost.
The main marketing considerations are:
(1) the brand image and styles for the successful presentation of the food,
(2) flexibility to change the size and design of the containers and
(3) compatibility with the system of handling distribution and the requirements of
the retailer.
In summary, the package should be aesthetically pleasing have a size and shape
that can retain the food in a convenient form, and must be suitable for easy disposal. The
package design should also meet any legislative requirements concerning labeling of
foods.