Chapter 2

This electric transmission tower is stabilized by cables that exert forces on the
tower at their points of connection. In this chapter we will show how to express
these forces as Cartesian vectors, and then determined their resultant.
Force Vectors

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
■ To show how to add forces and resolve them into components
using the Parallelogram Law.
■ To express force and position in Cartesian vector form and
explain how to determine the vector’s magnitude and direction.
■ To introduce the dot product in order to determine the angle
between two vectors or the projection of one vector onto
another.

2.1 Scalars and Vectors

All physical quantities in engineering mechanics are measured using
either scalars or vectors.

Scalar. A scalar is any positive or negative physical quantity that can

be completely specified by its magnitude. Examples of scalar quantities
include length, mass, and time.

Vector. A vector is any physical quantity that requires both a

magnitude and a direction for its complete description. Examples of Line of action
1 Head
vectors encountered in statics are force, position, and moment. A vector
is shown graphically by an arrow. The length of the arrow represents the A P
magnitude of the vector, and the angle u between the vector and a fixed
Tail 20⬚
axis defines the direction of its line of action. The head or tip of the arrow
indicates the sense of direction of the vector, Fig. 2–1. O
In print, vector quantities are represented by boldface letters such as Fig. 2–1
A, and the magnitude of a vector is italicized, A. For handwritten work,
it is often convenient to denote a vector quantity by simply drawing an
S
arrow above it, A .
 18 CHAPTER 2 F O R C E VE C T O R S

2.2 Vector Operations

Multiplication and Division of a Vector by a Scalar. If a

vector is multiplied by a positive scalar, its magnitude is increased by that
2 2A amount. Multiplying by a negative scalar will also change the directional
sense of the vector. Graphic examples of these operations are shown
A ⫺A in Fig. 2–2.
⫺ 0.5 A
Vector Addition. All vector quantities obey the parallelogram
law of addition. To illustrate, the two “component” vectors A and B in
Scalar multiplication and division Fig. 2–3a are added to form a “resultant” vector R = A + B using the
following procedure:
Fig. 2–2
• First join the tails of the components at a point to make them
concurrent, Fig. 2–3b.
• From the head of B, draw a line parallel to A. Draw another line
from the head of A that is parallel to B. These two lines intersect at
point P to form the adjacent sides of a parallelogram.
• The diagonal of this parallelogram that extends to P forms R, which
then represents the resultant vector R = A + B, Fig. 2–3c.

A A A

R
P
B B
B
R⫽A⫹B
Parallelogram law
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2–3

We can also add B to A, Fig. 2–4a, using the triangle rule, which is a
special case of the parallelogram law, whereby vector B is added to
vector A in a “head-to-tail” fashion, i.e., by connecting the head of A to
the tail of B, Fig. 2–4b. The resultant R extends from the tail of A to the
head of B. In a similar manner, R can also be obtained by adding A to B,
Fig. 2–4c. By comparison, it is seen that vector addition is commutative;
in other words, the vectors can be added in either order, i.e.,
R = A + B = B + A.
 2.2 VECTOR OPERATIONS 19

A A B
R
R
B A
B
2
R⫽A⫹B R⫽B⫹A
Triangle rule Triangle rule
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2–4

As a special case, if the two vectors A and B are collinear, i.e., both
have the same line of action, the parallelogram law reduces to an
algebraic or scalar addition R = A + B, as shown in Fig. 2–5.

R
A B
R⫽A⫹B

Addition of collinear vectors

Fig. 2–5

Vector Subtraction. The resultant of the difference between two

vectors A and B of the same type may be expressed as

R⬘ = A - B = A + (-B)

This vector sum is shown graphically in Fig. 2–6. Subtraction is therefore

defined as a special case of addition, so the rules of vector addition also
apply to vector subtraction.

ⴚB
A

A or
R¿ R¿ A

B ⴚB

Parallelogram law Triangle construction

Vector subtraction

Fig. 2–6
 20 CHAPTER 2 F O R C E VE C T O R S

2.3 Vector Addition of Forces

Experimental evidence has shown that a force is a vector quantity since
it has a specified magnitude, direction, and sense and it adds according to
2
the parallelogram law. Two common problems in statics involve either
finding the resultant force, knowing its components, or resolving a known
force into two components. We will now describe how each of these
problems is solved using the parallelogram law.
F2
F1
FR
Finding a Resultant Force. The two component forces F1 and F2
acting on the pin in Fig. 2–7a can be added together to form the resultant
force FR = F1 + F2, as shown in Fig. 2–7b. From this construction, or using
The parallelogram law must be used the triangle rule, Fig. 2–7c, we can apply the law of cosines or the law of
to determine the resultant of the two sines to the triangle in order to obtain the magnitude of the resultant
forces acting on the hook. force and its direction.

F1 F1 F1
F2

FR FR
F2 F2
FR ⫽ F1 ⫹ F2
F (a) (b) (c)
v u

Fu Fig. 2–7
Fv

Finding the Components of a Force. Sometimes it is necessary

to resolve a force into two components in order to study its pulling or
pushing effect in two specific directions. For example, in Fig. 2–8a, F is to
be resolved into two components along the two members, defined by the
u and v axes. In order to determine the magnitude of each component, a
parallelogram is constructed first, by drawing lines starting from the tip
of F, one line parallel to u, and the other line parallel to v. These lines
then intersect with the v and u axes, forming a parallelogram. The force
components Fu and Fv are then established by simply joining the tail of F
to the intersection points on the u and v axes, Fig. 2–8b. This parallelogram
Using the parallelogram law the supporting can then be reduced to a triangle, which represents the triangle rule,
force F can be resolved into components Fig. 2–8c. From this, the law of sines can then be applied to determine the
acting along the u and v axes. unknown magnitudes of the components.
 2.3 VECTOR ADDITION OF FORCES 21

v v

F F

Fv F
Fv
u u 2
Fu Fu

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2–8

F1 ⫹ F2 FR
Addition of Several Forces. If more than two forces are to be
added, successive applications of the parallelogram law can be carried
F2
out in order to obtain the resultant force. For example, if three forces F1,
F2, F3 act at a point O, Fig. 2–9, the resultant of any two of the forces is
found, say, F1 + F2—and then this resultant is added to the third force,
yielding the resultant of all three forces; i.e., FR = (F1 + F2) + F3. Using F1
the parallelogram law to add more than two forces, as shown here, often F3
O
requires extensive geometric and trigonometric calculation to determine
the numerical values for the magnitude and direction of the resultant. Fig. 2–9
Instead, problems of this type are easily solved by using the “rectangular-
component method,” which is explained in Sec. 2.4.

FR
F1  F2

F2

F1
F3

The resultant force FR on the hook requires

the addition of F1 + F2, then this resultant
is added to F3.
 22 CHAPTER 2 F O R C E VE C T O R S

Procedure for Analysis

F1 Problems that involve the addition of two forces can be solved as

follows:
2 FR
Parallelogram Law.
F2 • Two “component” forces F1 and F2 in Fig. 2–10a add according to
the parallelogram law, yielding a resultant force FR that forms the
(a) diagonal of the parallelogram.

• If a force F is to be resolved into components along two axes u

v and v, Fig. 2–10b, then start at the head of force F and construct
lines parallel to the axes, thereby forming the parallelogram. The
F
sides of the parallelogram represent the components, Fu and Fv.
u
Fv • Label all the known and unknown force magnitudes and the angles
Fu on the sketch and identify the two unknowns as the magnitude and
direction of FR, or the magnitudes of its components.
(b)
Trigonometry.
• Redraw a half portion of the parallelogram to illustrate the
c triangular head-to-tail addition of the components.
A B

b a • From this triangle, the magnitude of the resultant force can be

C determined using the law of cosines, and its direction is determined
from the law of sines. The magnitudes of two force components
Cosine law: are determined from the law of sines. The formulas are given in
C ⫽ A2 ⫹ B2 ⫺ 2AB cos c Fig. 2–10c.
Sine law:
A ⫽ B ⫽ C
sin a sin b sin c

(c)

Fig. 2–10

Important Points

• A scalar is a positive or negative number.

• A vector is a quantity that has a magnitude, direction, and sense.
• Multiplication or division of a vector by a scalar will change the
magnitude of the vector. The sense of the vector will change if the
scalar is negative.

• As a special case, if the vectors are collinear, the resultant is

formed by an algebraic or scalar addition.
 2.3 VECTOR ADDITION OF FORCES 23

EXAMPLE 2.1
EXAMPLE 2.1
The screw eye in Fig. 2–11a is subjected to two forces, F1 and F2.
Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force.

10⬚ 2
F2 ⫽ 150 N A

150 N

115⬚ 65⬚
F1 ⫽ 100 N

10⬚
15⬚ FR
360⬚ ⫺ 2(65⬚)
⫽ 115⬚
2

u 100 N
15⬚

90⬚ ⫺ 25⬚ ⫽ 65⬚

(a) (b)

SOLUTION
Parallelogram Law. The parallelogram is formed by drawing a line
from the head of F1 that is parallel to F2, and another line from the
head of F2 that is parallel to F1. The resultant force FR extends to where
these lines intersect at point A, Fig. 2–11b. The two unknowns are the
magnitude of FR and the angle u (theta).

Trigonometry. From the parallelogram, the vector triangle is FR

150 N
constructed, Fig. 2–11c. Using the law of cosines

FR = 2(100 N)2 + (150 N)2 - 2(100 N)(150 N) cos 115⬚

115⬚
= 210 000 + 22 500 - 30 000(-0.4226) = 212.6 N u
f 100 N
= 213 N Ans. 15⬚
(c)
Applying the law of sines to determine u,
Fig. 2–11
150 N 212.6 N 150 N
= sin u = (sin 115⬚)
sin u sin 115⬚ 212.6 N
u = 39.8⬚
Thus, the direction f (phi) of FR, measured from the horizontal, is

f = 39.8⬚ + 15.0⬚ = 54.8⬚ Ans.

NOTE: The results seem reasonable, since Fig. 2–11b shows FR to have
a magnitude larger than its components and a direction that is
between them.
 24 CHAPTER 2 F O R C E VE C T O R S

EXAMPLE 2.2
EXAMPLE 2.1
Resolve the horizontal 600-lb force in Fig. 2–12a into components
acting along the u and v axes and determine the magnitudes of these
components.
2

u
u B
Fu Fu
30 30
30 30 Fv
120 120
30 30 30
A
600 lb 600 lb 600 lb
120
Fv

C
v

v
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2–12

SOLUTION
The parallelogram is constructed by extending a line from the head of
the 600-lb force parallel to the v axis until it intersects the u axis at
point B, Fig. 2–12b. The arrow from A to B represents Fu. Similarly, the
line extended from the head of the 600-lb force drawn parallel to the
u axis intersects the v axis at point C, which gives Fv .
The vector addition using the triangle rule is shown in Fig. 2–12c.
The two unknowns are the magnitudes of Fu and Fv. Applying the law
of sines,

Fu 600 lb
=
sin 120⬚ sin 30⬚
Fu = 1039 lb Ans.

Fv 600 lb
=
sin 30⬚ sin 30⬚
Fv = 600 lb Ans.

NOTE: The result for Fu shows that sometimes a component can have
a greater magnitude than the resultant.
 2.3 VECTOR ADDITION OF FORCES 25

EXAMPLE 2.3
EXAMPLE 2.1
Determine the magnitude of the component force F in Fig. 2–13a and
the magnitude of the resultant force FR if FR is directed along the
positive y axis.
2

y
y

F 45 45 F
FR FR
200 lb 45
45 75
F 45 30 60
60
30 200 lb 200 lb
30

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2–13

SOLUTION
The parallelogram law of addition is shown in Fig. 2–13b, and the
triangle rule is shown in Fig. 2–13c. The magnitudes of FR and F are the
two unknowns. They can be determined by applying the law of sines.

F 200 lb
=
sin 60⬚ sin 45⬚

F = 245 lb Ans.

FR 200 lb
=
sin 75⬚ sin 45⬚

FR = 273 lb Ans.
 26 CHAPTER 2 F O R C E VE C T O R S

EXAMPLE 2.4
EXAMPLE 2.1
It is required that the resultant force acting on the eyebolt in Fig. 2–14a
be directed along the positive x axis and that F2 have a minimum
magnitude. Determine this magnitude, the angle u, and the corresponding
2 resultant force.

F1  800 N

F1  800 N F2 F1  800 N

F2
60 60
u
60
x x x
FR FR
u u  90

(b) (c)

F2
(a)

Fig. 2–14

SOLUTION
The triangle rule for FR = F1 + F2 is shown in Fig. 2–14b. Since the
magnitudes (lengths) of FR and F2 are not specified, then F2 can actually
be any vector that has its head touching the line of action of FR, Fig. 2–14c.
However, as shown, the magnitude of F2 is a minimum or the shortest
length when its line of action is perpendicular to the line of action of
FR, that is, when

u = 90⬚ Ans.

Since the vector addition now forms the shaded right triangle, the two
unknown magnitudes can be obtained by trigonometry.

FR = (800 N)cos 60⬚ = 400 N Ans.

F2 = (800 N)sin 60⬚ = 693 N Ans.

It is strongly suggested that you test yourself on the solutions to these

examples, by covering them over and then trying to draw the parallelogram
law, and thinking about how the sine and cosine laws are used to determine
the unknowns. Then before solving any of the problems, try and solve some
of the Fundamental Problems given on the next page. The solutions and
answers to these are given in the back of the book. Doing this throughout
the book will help immensely in developing your problem-solving skills.
 2.3 VECTOR ADDITION OF FORCES 27

FUNDAMENTAL
PROBLEMS PROBLEMS *
F2–1. Determine the magnitude of the resultant force F2–4. Resolve the 30-lb force into components along the
acting on the screw eye and its direction measured clockwise u and v axes, and determine the magnitude of each of these
from the x axis. components.
v 2

30 lb
15⬚
x
45⬚ 30⬚
60⬚ u

2 kN
6 kN F2–1
F2–4
F2–2. Two forces act on the hook. Determine the magnitude
of the resultant force. F2–5. The force F = 450 lb acts on the frame. Resolve
this force into components acting along members AB and
AC, and determine the magnitude of each component.
30⬚
A

C
45⬚
30⬚
450 lb
200 N
40⬚

500 N F2–2
B
F2–3. Determine the magnitude of the resultant force F2–5
and its direction measured counterclockwise from the
positive x axis. F2–6. If force F is to have a component along the u axis of
Fu = 6 kN, determine the magnitude of F and the
magnitude of its component Fv along the v axis.
y
u

800 N
F
45⬚

105⬚

x
30⬚
v
600 N
F2–3 F2–6

* Partial solutions and answers to all Fundamental Problems are given in the back of the book.
 28 CHAPTER 2 F O R C E VE C T O R S

PROBLEMS

2–1. Determine the magnitude of the resultant force *2–4. Determine the magnitude of the resultant force
FR = F1 + F2 and its direction, measured counterclockwise FR = F1 + F2 and its direction, measured clockwise from
2 from the positive x axis. the positive u axis.

2–5. Resolve the force F1 into components acting along

y the u and v axes and determine the magnitudes of the
components.
F1 ⫽ 250 lb
2–6. Resolve the force F2 into components acting along
the u and v axes and determine the magnitudes of the
30⬚ components.

x 70⬚
45⬚ u
30⬚

45⬚
F1 ⫽ 300 N
F2 ⫽ 375 lb F2 ⫽ 500 N v

Prob. 2–1 Probs. 2–4/5/6

2–7. The vertical force F acts downward at A on the two-

membered frame. Determine the magnitudes of the two
components of F directed along the axes of AB and AC.
Set F = 500 N.
2–2. If u = 60⬚ and F = 450 N, determine the magnitude of
*2–8. Solve Prob. 2–7 with F = 350 lb.
the resultant force and its direction, measured counterclockwise
from the positive x axis.

2–3. If the magnitude of the resultant force is to be 500 N,

B
directed along the positive y axis, determine the magnitude
of force F and its direction u.
45⬚
y
F

u A
x
15⬚
700 N
F 30⬚

Probs. 2–2/3 Probs. 2–7/8

 2.3 VECTOR ADDITION OF FORCES 29

2–9. Resolve F1 into components along the u and v axes 2–13. Force F acts on the frame such that its component
and determine the magnitudes of these components. acting along member AB is 650 lb, directed from B towards
A, and the component acting along member BC is 500 lb,
2–10. Resolve F2 into components along the u and v axes directed from B towards C. Determine the magnitude of F
and determine the magnitudes of these components. and its direction u. Set f = 60⬚.

2–14. Force F acts on the frame such that its component 2

acting along member AB is 650 lb, directed from B towards
A. Determine the required angle f (0⬚ … f … 90⬚) and the
component acting along member BC. Set F = 850 lb and
v u = 30⬚.
F1 ⫽ 250 N
B

F2 ⫽ 150 N 30⬚ u u

F
30⬚
105⬚ f 45⬚
A C

Probs. 2–13/14

Probs. 2–9/10 2–15. The plate is subjected to the two forces at A and B
as shown. If u = 60⬚, determine the magnitude of the
resultant of these two forces and its direction measured
clockwise from the horizontal.

*2–16. Determine the angle u for connecting member A to

2–11. The force acting on the gear tooth is F = 20 lb. the plate so that the resultant force of FA and FB is directed
Resolve this force into two components acting along the horizontally to the right. Also, what is the magnitude of the
lines aa and bb. resultant force?
*2–12. The component of force F acting along line aa is
required to be 30 lb. Determine the magnitude of F and its FA ⫽ 8 kN
component along line bb.
u
A

b
F a
80⬚

60⬚
a
b 40⬚

B
FB ⫽ 6 kN

Probs. 2–11/12 Probs. 2–15/16

 30 CHAPTER 2 F O R C E VE C T O R S

2–17. Determine the design angle u (0⬚ … u … 90⬚) for 2–21. Two forces act on the screw eye. If F1 = 400 N and
strut AB so that the 400-lb horizontal force has a component F2 = 600 N, determine the angle u (0⬚ … u … 180⬚) between
of 500 lb directed from A towards C. What is the component them, so that the resultant force has a magnitude of FR = 800 N.
of force acting along member AB? Take f = 40⬚.
2–22. Two forces F1 and F2 act on the screw eye. If their
2–18. Determine the design angle f (0⬚ … f … 90⬚) lines of action are at an angle u apart and the magnitude of
2 between struts AB and AC so that the 400-lb horizontal each force is F1 = F2 = F, determine the magnitude of the
force has a component of 600 lb which acts up to the left, in resultant force FR and the angle between FR and F1.
the same direction as from B towards A. Take u = 30⬚.

F1

400 lb A
u
u
f B

C F2

Probs. 2–21/22
Probs. 2–17/18
2–23. Two forces act on the screw eye. If F = 600 N,
determine the magnitude of the resultant force and the
angle u if the resultant force is directed vertically upward.
2–19. Determine the magnitude and direction of the
resultant FR = F1 + F2 + F3 of the three forces by first *2–24. Two forces are applied at the end of a screw eye in
finding the resultant F⬘ = F1 + F2 and then forming order to remove the post. Determine the angle
FR = F⬘ + F3. u (0⬚ … u … 90⬚) and the magnitude of force F so that the
resultant force acting on the post is directed vertically
*2–20. Determine the magnitude and direction of the upward and has a magnitude of 750 N.
resultant FR = F1 + F2 + F3 of the three forces by first
finding the resultant F⬘ = F2 + F3 and then forming y
FR = F⬘ + F1.
F
30⬚
500 N u
y
F1 ⫽ 30 N x
5
3
4 F3 ⫽ 50 N
x

20⬚

F2 ⫽ 20 N

Probs. 2–19/20 Probs. 2–23/24

 2.3 VECTOR ADDITION OF FORCES 31

2–25. The chisel exerts a force of 20 lb on the wood dowel *2–28. If the resultant force of the two tugboats is 3 kN,
rod which is turning in a lathe. Resolve this force into directed along the positive x axis, determine the required
components acting (a) along the n and t axes and (b) along magnitude of force FB and its direction u.
the x and y axes. 2–29. If FB = 3 kN and u = 45⬚, determine the magni-
tude of the resultant force of the two tugboats and its
direction measured clockwise from the positive x axis. 2
y
t 2–30. If the resultant force of the two tugboats is required
to be directed towards the positive x axis, and FB is to be a
minimum, determine the magnitude of FR and FB and the
n angle u.
30⬚
60⬚
60⬚ y
A
45⬚
x
FA ⫽ 2 kN
20 lb
30⬚
x
u
C FB
Prob. 2–25

B
2–26. The beam is to be hoisted using two chains.
Determine the magnitudes of forces FA and FB acting on Probs. 2–28/29/30
each chain in order to develop a resultant force of 600 N
2–31. Three chains act on the bracket such that they create
directed along the positive y axis. Set u = 45⬚.
a resultant force having a magnitude of 500 lb. If two of the
2–27. The beam is to be hoisted using two chains. If the chains are subjected to known forces, as shown, determine
resultant force is to be 600 N directed along the positive the angle u of the third chain measured clockwise from the
y axis, determine the magnitudes of forces FA and FB acting positive x axis, so that the magnitude of force F in this chain
on each chain and the angle u of FB so that the magnitude of is a minimum. All forces lie in the x–y plane. What is the
FB is a minimum. FA acts at 30⬚ from the y axis, as shown. magnitude of F? Hint: First find the resultant of the two
known forces. Force F acts in this direction.
y y

FB FA

30⬚
u
300 lb

x
30⬚
x
u

200 lb

Probs. 2–26/27 Prob. 2–31

 32 CHAPTER 2 F O R C E VE C T O R S

2.4 Addition of a System of Coplanar

Forces
When a force is resolved into two components along the x and y axes, the
2 components are then called rectangular components. For analytical work
we can represent these components in one of two ways, using either scalar
notation or Cartesian vector notation.
y Scalar Notation. The rectangular components of force F shown
in Fig. 2–15a are found using the parallelogram law, so that F = Fx + Fy.
Because these components form a right triangle, they can be deter-
F
mined from
Fy Fx = F cos u and Fy = F sin u
u
x Instead of using the angle u, however, the direction of F can also be
Fx defined using a small “slope” triangle, as in the example shown in Fig. 2–15b.
Since this triangle and the larger shaded triangle are similar, the proportional
(a) length of the sides gives
Fx a
=
y F c
or
Fx
x a
Fx = F a b
c c
Fy b
a and

F Fy b
=
(b) F c

Fig. 2–15 or

b
Fy = -Fa b
c

Here the y component is a negative scalar since Fy is directed along the

negative y axis.
It is important to keep in mind that this positive and negative scalar
notation is to be used only for computational purposes, not for graphical
representations in figures. Throughout the book, the head of a vector
arrow in any figure indicates the sense of the vector graphically; algebraic
signs are not used for this purpose. Thus, the vectors in Figs. 2–15a and
2–15b are designated by using boldface (vector) notation.* Whenever
italic symbols are written near vector arrows in figures, they indicate the
magnitude of the vector, which is always a positive quantity.

*Negative signs are used only in figures with boldface notation when showing equal but
opposite pairs of vectors, as in Fig. 2–2.