CHAPTER -2

2. Minerals and rocks

2.1 classification and types of minerals

 2.1.1 Definition of a mineral
By definition a mineral is:
1. inorganic,
2. structurally homogeneous solid ,
3. has definite crystalline structure :Atoms are arranged in an
orderly, repetitive manner. Some naturally occurring solids,
like volcanic glass (obsidian), lack repetitive atomic
structure are not considered minerals.
4. has a well-defined regular internal arrangement of its
constituent particles,
5. has a definite chemical composition which can be expressed
by a unique chemical formula.
6. Naturally occurring--‐are formed by natural geologic
processes
7. has a definite set of physical properties that are fixed within
certain limits.
A few exceptions to the mineral definition are
(1) precious gemstones like diamond can be synthetically
produced under controlled laboratory condition.
(2) Coal, petroleum are natural but typical organic substances
that are considered as minerals
(3) Asphalt, mercury, petroleum natural gas are semisolids,
liquids and gas respectively, but they are considered as
minerals.

• Atoms  Elements  Compounds  Minerals  Rocks

(smallest) (largest)
 2.1.2 Mineral classification
• All minerals can be grouped into various categories based on
various parameters:
1. Based on their economic importance
 rock forming minerals : those mineral which are important
only in so far as they are constitutes of rocks. Eg.
 silicate mineral such as feldspars and quartz and some other
 non silicate minerals such as calcite are the major rock forming minerals having little economic
importance;

 minerals of economic values ;those that are solely mined for

their economic value.
E.g. Au, Ag, Cu, Fe, etc.
2.Based on their origin (processes of formation)
 Primary mineral: those formed from a solidifying magma.
E.g. silicate mineral;
 Secondary mineral; those formed from secondary processes
such as sedimentation and metamorphism .
E.g. olivine is primary mineral while malachite is a
secondary metamorphic mineral.
3.Based on their importance to the naming of rocks
 Essential mineral; those whose presence or absence affects the
naming of a rock;
 Accessory mineral; those whose presence do not affect the
naming of a rock. E.g. Quartz is an essential mineral in Granit
while zircon is an accessory mineral in the same rock.
4. Based on their chemical composition as
natives,sulphates,phosphates,oxodes,carbonates,halides,silicates,e
tc
 2.1.3 Groups of Minerals
• Native elements-such as gold, silver, copper, iron, platinum, sulphur,
diamond, etc.
• Sulphates - whose basic unit is (SO4)2-, such as gypsum, barite, etc.
• Oxides - whose basic unit is O2-, such as magnetite, hematite, etc.
• Carbonates- whose basic unit is (CO3)2-, such as calcite, dolomite,
magnesite, etc.
• Halides- such as halite, fluorite, sylvite, etc.
• Sulphides- such as pyrite, galena, sphalerite, etc.
• Phosphates- whose basic unit is (PO4)3- , such as apatite, etc.
• Arsenides- such as realgar, orpiment, etc.
• Silicates- whose basic unit is (SiO4)4-, such as quartz, pyroxene,
amphibole, etc.

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 2.1.4 properties of minerals
• Physical properties:
A mineral's physical properties arise from its
specific chemical composition
crystalline structure
Therefore many of these properties are unique to each mineral
and can be used for identification.
1.Luster
• Luster refers to the appearance of a mineral when it reflects
light.
• A mineral with high luster is very reflective.
• Luster is either metallic (looks like a metal) or nonmetallic.
 2.Color and Streak
• Although color is diagnostic for some minerals, most minerals
occur in many hues and generally cannot be distinguished by
color alone.
Quartz, for example, can be transparent, white (milky quartz),
red (rose quartz), black (smoky quartz), or purple (amethyst),
among its many colors.
• Therefore, color should only be used in conjunction with other
physical properties, as an aid in identification.
• The color of the powdered mineral, the streak, is usually
much less variable than the color seen in hand specimens.
• A streak is produced by rubbing the mineral on an unglazed
porcelain plate.
• The powdered mineral can then be observed against a
contrasting background.
• Streak color is particularly useful in distinguishing metallic
minerals that look very similar in hand sample, such as
hematite, an iron oxide (rust) and an important iron-ore
mineral, and galena, an ore of lead and zinc.
• Nonmetallic minerals generally have a colorless or white
streak.
 3. Hardness
• Hardness is defined as a mineral's ability to resist scratching
or abrasion. For example, diamond is the hardest natural
substance known and will scratch all other minerals.
• A mineral can be scratched by all minerals harder than itself and
will scratch all minerals softer than itself. Samples are tested for
hardness against a set of index
Cont.….
• Minerals that are scaled from 1 (softest) to 10 (hardest),
called Mohs Hardness Scale (see below).
• Mineral hardness is determined by comparing the relative
hardness of an unknown specimen with an index mineral
or other material with known hardness.

Glass is often used because:

• it is easy to see a scratch on glass, and
• the hardness of glass is about midway on Mohs Scale.
• A set of probes of known hardness is available, as well.
 4.Cleavage and Fracture
• Cleavage is the tendency of a mineral to split, or cleave, along
closely spaced parallel planes.
• The planes along which a mineral cleaves (when hit with a
hammer, for example) are the planes along which the bonds
between atoms in the mineral are the weakest.
• Minerals that break easily and cleanly along one or more planes
are said to have good cleavage.
• If the break is less clean the cleavage is referred to as poor.
• The number of cleavage planes and the angles between
cleavage planes are commonly used to distinguish minerals.
• The table below includes examples of cleavage in common
minerals.
• Mica minerals have only one cleavage plane, producing a series
of sheets.
• Halite has cleavage in three directions, with all planes at right
angles (90°).
• Note that even though a cube has six sides, opposite sides are
parallel to each other and therefore represent the same cleavage
plane.
• A cubic shape represents three cleavage planes, not six.
• Cleavage planes are flat and will reflect light at a uniform angle.
• Slowly turn a mineral under light and watch for these reflections.
• Hold transparent samples up to a light and look for cleavage
planes running through the interior, too.
• Also note that some minerals have corners or "steps" along their
edges, indicating at least two different planes of cleavage
 5. Specific Gravity
• Specific gravity is a measure of relative density.
• It is determined by comparing the mass of a material to the
mass of an equal volume of water.
• A mineral with a specific gravity of 3.0 would be three times
heavier than an equal volume of water.
• Specific gravity is not expressed in units of any kind, as it is a
ratio.
• specific gravity = mass of mineral
mass of equal volume of water
 2.1.5 Abundance of minerals
• In the order of abundance, among different rock forming minerals,
Silicates rank first in the earth’s crust, Oxides come next, then
carbonates, Phosphates, Sulphates etc in greatly reduced amount.

• Silicates is the most abundant rock forming mineral because silicon

and oxygen elements account 75% by weight which forms the basic
unit of silicates.
Element O Si Al Fe Ca Na Mg K Total Others

Abundance 46.40 28.15 8.23 5.63 4.15 2.36 2.33 2.09 99.34 0.66
(Wt. %)

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 2.2 Rock forming minerals
• The 8 most abundant mineral in the earth’s crust and the most
common minerals in rocks are often called the “rock-forming”
minerals.
• All 8 can be found in igneous rocks, and all 8 are silicates.

1. Quartz
2. Feldspars: Alkali feldspar
3. Plagioclase feldspar
4. Micas: Muscovite mica
5. Biotite mica
6. Pyroxene
7. Amphibole
8. Olivine
Common rock forming minerals
• The rock-forming minerals make up the bulk of most
rocks in the Earth’s crust.
• They are important to geologists simply because they are the most
common minerals.
• They are olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, mica, clay minerals,
feldspar, quartz, calcite, and dolomite.
• The first six minerals in this list are actually mineral
“groups,” in which each group contains several varieties with very
similar chemical compositions, crystalline
structures, and appearances.
 Each of the common rock-forming minerals can be identified on
the basis of its
chemical composition and
its crystal structure (i.e. the arrangement of its atoms and ions).
However, fairly expensive equipment and sophisticated
procedures are required for such determinations.
Therefore, it is fortunate that macroscopic examination, along
with one or more tests, is usually sufficient to identify these
minerals as they occur in most rocks.
 2.3 Types of Rocks
Definition: A rock is a solid naturally occurring made up of
minerals or mineral like matter forming the earth’s crust.
Exceptions to the definition of a rock are
Mercury: It is not a solid at normal temperatures but if it gets
cold enough it becomes solid.
Coquina: is a sedimentary rock made of sea shells. The shells
are made of minerals.
Coal: is considered a rock but it is not made of minerals it
comes from organic matter plants.
The last two are called biogenic rocks.

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 Rocks normally consist of several minerals,
• some essential,
• some accessory
 A rock may be thought of as a "mineral environment."
 Each rock type was formed under certain specific conditions,
resulting in the formation of a fairly predictable group of
minerals.
 Rocks fall into three classes according to their origin:
1. Igneous
2. Sedimentary
3. Metamorphic
 Rocks can be;
1. monominerallic or
2. polyminerallic
 Monominerallic rock is a rock made
up of one mineral. Example: Rock salt
is made of halite

 Polyminerallic rock is a rock

made up two or more minerals .
Example: Granite

POLYMINERALIC
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Three main categories of rocks:

• Igneous
• Sedimentary
• Metamorphic
2.3.1 Igneous Rocks
2.3.1 .1 Formation or origin of igneous rocks
Igneous rocks are the first formed rocks, which made up the
original earth’s crust. Hence they are called primary rocks.
Igneous rocks are the most abundant rocks in the crust of the
earth.
The name Igneous derived from
the Latin word from ignis meaning fire .
Igneous rock is formed through the cooling and solidification of
magma or lava.

30
Cont.….
Igneous rock may form either
below the surface as intrusive rocks(plutonic) or
on the surface as extrusive rocks(volcanic).
The magma can be derived from partial melts of pre-existing
rocks either in a earth’s mantle or crust.
The melting of pre-existing rocks is caused by one or more of
three processes:
 an increase in temperature
 a decrease in pressure
 a change in composition.

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 Bowen’s Reaction Series

Is a theory concerning the crystallization processes which

occurs when the magma cools.
As the magma cools, individual minerals species selectively
crystallize at some unique temperature.
Thus we have some minerals crystallizing very early in the
cooling history then the melt is still extremely hot, and other
minerals which crystallize at successively lower and lower
temperatures.
The earlier formed crystal can sink to the bottom of the magma
by gravitational settling or tectonic activity (directed pressure) can
squeeze the melt out and away from the crystal.
Whatever the case there is abundant experimental and field
evidence which suggests that at each stage of crystal formation the
remaining melt’s compositions continues to evolve overtime as
selective components are removed during the formation of the
crystals.

This processes is called fractional crystallization.

Not only does the melt compositions, but the crystals also change
their original compositions by reacting with the remaining melt.
When crystals first forms, it is in equilibrium with the melt.
However, as noted the melt changes its composition over the
course of time as crystals continue to forming.
The net result is the earlier crystals become less stable, and so they
gradually alter their composition to become more stable minerals.
The alteration processes can occur either as a “discontinuous” or
“continuous” processes. Both processes are active at the same time.
A. Discontinuous reaction series
Is where the early formed minerals react with the melt to form
completely new mineral species.

An example of discontinuous reaction series is the reaction of the

very high temperature mineral olivine with melt to form
pyroxene.

With further cooling, pyroxene reacts with the remaining melt

to form amphibole.

Amphibole reacts with the melt to form biotite.

Each new minerals form at lower and lower temperature.
b. Continuous reaction series
In a continuous reaction series the crystals react with melt but do
not form completely new mineral species.
Instead, ionic diffusion causes an exchange or ions to occur in the
crystal lattice of the mineral, resulting in a modified compositions.
The primary example of continuous reaction series is that of Ca-
rich plagioclase (anorthite).
The continuous reaction of anorthite with the melt causes the
anorthite to change its composition to become a more Na-rich
plagioclase (albite).
2.3.1.2 Classification of igneous rocks
Igneous rocks are classified based on :
1. mode of occurrence
2. mineralogy/ chemical composition,
3. the geometry of the igneous body.

(1) Classification of igneous rocks based on modes of

occurrence
• Based on modes of occurrence, igneous rocks can be classified as:
a) Intrusive
b) extrusive

39
 (a) Intrusive Igneous rocks

Intrusive igneous rocks are formed from magma that cools and
solidifies within the crust of the earth, surrounded by pre-existing
rock (called country rock).
The magma cools slowly, and as a result these rocks are coarse
grained.

40
Continued…

(a)

Hypabyssal

(b)

Figure: (a) Extrusive (b) Intrusive Igneous rocks 41

Continued…
i. Plutonic rocks: Intrusive Igneous rocks which are formed when
magma is trapped deep inside the earth under high temperature
and pressure environment.
• Slow cooling of magma.
• Coarse in grain size.
E.g. Granite , Gabbro.

(a)
(b)
Figure: (a) Granite and (b) Gabbro 42
(b) Extrusive igneous rock
Igneous rocks which are formed on the surface of
earth by out pouring of magma are termed as
extrusive igneous rocks
Extrusive igneous rocks include both:
i. lava flow-product rocks (volcanic rocks)
ii. pyroclastic rocks.

i.Volcanic rocks: are igneous rocks, which have been

formed on the surface of the earth at rapid rate of
cooling of lava . Such rocks are fine grained or glassy
matter.
Examples: Rhyolite, Basalt and Obsidian

43
Continued…

c
Figure: (a) Rhyolite, (b) Basalt, and (c) Obsidian
Continued…
ii. Pyroclastic rocks: igneous rocks formed during volcanic
eruption (Pyroclastic meaning fire fragmental, also known
as volcaniclastic.
• High viscosity magma: pyroclastic eruptive style.
Examples:Volcanic Tuff (consolidated Tephra), pumice and
scoria

(b)

(a)

Figure: (a) Tephra (b)volcanic Tuff 45

Continued…

(c)

(d)

Figure: (c) Pumice and (d) Scoria

46
Continued…

Figure: Volcanic eruption – very much volatiles 47

Summary of igneous rocks on their mode of Occurrence

48
(2) Chemical or Mineralogical classification of igneous rocks
(mainly based on silica SiO2)
On this basis igneous rocks are classified as: Felsic (acidic),
intermediate, mafic (basic), and Ultramafic (ultrabasic)
igneous rocks. More felsic rocks are light in colour and more
mafic rocks are dark in colour.
a) Felsic (acidic) igneous rocks containing a high silica content,
greater than 65% SiO2(examples granite and rhyolite)
b) Intermediate igneous rocks containing between 55 - 65%
SiO2 (example andesite and dacite)
c) Mafic (basic) igneous rocks have low silica 45 - 55% and
typically high iron - magnesium content (example gabbro
and basalt)
d) Ultramafic (ultrabasic) igneous rocks with less than 45% silica.
(example periodotite)

49
Composition Felsic Intermediate Mafic Ultra mafic
(Acidic) (Basic) (Ultra basic)

SiO2% >65 55-65 45-55 <45

Rock types
Intrusive Granite Diorite Gabbro Peridotite
Extrusive Rhyolite Andesite Basalt
(Volcanic)

51
Major Chemical Elements Forming Igneous Rocks

52
 (b) (c)

(a)

Figure: Intrusive rocks:

(a) Peridotite-ultramafic
(b) Gabbro-mafic
(c) Diorite -intermediate
(d) Granite-felsic
(d)
53
(a) (b)

Figure: Extrusive rocks:

(a) Basalt-mafic
(b) Andesite-
intermediate
(c) Rhyolite-felsic

(c)
Texture of chemical classified igneous rocks

55
 Igneous rock classification
texture felsic intermediate mafic ultramafic

Pegmatitic Granit Diorite Gabbro pigmatite(rare) Peridotite

Very coarse pigmatite pigmatite Pegmatite
grained (rare)

Phaneritic Granite Diorite Gabbro Peridotite

Coarse grained

Aphanitic Rhyolite Andesite Basalt Komatite (rare)

Fine grained

Glassy Obsidian Obsidian Obsidian

Not related to
Mineral content

vesicular Pumice Pumice Scoria or vesicular

basalt

Pyroclastic Tuff(<2mm fragments) Volcanic

Not related to breccia(>2mmfragmen
Mineral content ts)
(3) Classification igneous rocks based on their
geometry or forms
a) Batholiths: A large irregularly shaped plutonic that cuts
across the layering of the rock into which it intrudes, exceeds
1000 km long ,250 km wide.
b) Stock: A smaller batholiths, only 10 km in maximum
dimension.
c) Dike: Magma is squeezed into across-cutting fracture and
solidified to form a dike.
d) Sill: Magma intrudes between two layers to form a sill.
e) Laccoliths: a sill that has caused overlying rock to bulge
upward into a mushroom-like shape.
f) Xenoliths : country rock mass surrounded by intrusive rocks

57
Figure: Different forms of igneous rocks 58
2.3.1.3 Texture of Igneous rocks

The term ‘Texture’ refers the size, shape and arrangement of

mineral grains in a rock.

In the study of texture four points are considered.

These are:
1.Degree of crystallization
2.Size of grains
3.Shape of crystals
4.Mutual relations of constituent mineral grains.
 Size of grains:
On the basis of grain size two major textures are known. These
are:
(i) Phaneritic texture
(ii) Aphanitic texture
(i)Phaneritic texture: If minerals grains in igneous rocks are big
enough to be seen by the naked eye, the texture is described as
phaneritic texture.It is further divided into three:
a) Coarse grained texture - > 2 mm
b) Medium grained texture - 0.06-2 mm
c) Fine grained texture - <0.06 mm
(ii) Aphanitic texture: If mineral grains in igneous rocks are too
small to be seen with the naked eye, the texture is described as
Aphanitic texture.
Summery of igneous rock classification
2.3.1.4 Where and how are magmas formed?
1.Mid-ocean ridges – decompression
mafic (basaltic) magma
2. Continental rifts and other areas of extension – decompression
mostly mafic (basaltic) magma
3. Subduction zones – melting due to addition of fluids
mafic, intermediate, and felsic magmas - often water-rich
5. Mantle plumes (hot spots) – decompression melting
6. ocean basins: mafic magma
7. continents: mostly mafic magma, some intermediate and felsic
magmas
Note: secondary melts may occur due to addition of heat from primary
magma
2.3.1.5 Engineering importance of some of igneous rocks
Granite
It is massive, dense, competent, and has inter locked texture. It
is impermeable and non porous. These properties give strength
to this rock.

Due to its high crushing strength, good polishing, resistant to

fire, frost and abrasion granite becomes suitable as foundation
rock, building stone, road stone, or rail way ballast.

Being non-porous and impermeable granites do not pose ground

water problem during tunneling. Furthermore rock tunneling
through granite does not require any lining because of its
competence.

64
Basalt
Basalts like other dark colored igneous rocks are preferable
only as road stones and concrete aggregate.

This is because of their dark color they are not pleasant to be

used as building stone in face work.

Because of its highest load bearing capacity or crushing

strength massive basalt is used as good foundation rock.

Generally igneous rocks, which are crystalline, compact and

impervious in nature, are safe to be used as a foundation
rocks, abutment, wall and roof in tunnels.
2.3.2 Sedimentary rocks
2.3.2.1 Formation of sedimentary rocks
Formation of sedimentary rocks involves the following 3 stages of
processes:
1. Weathering and erosion
2. Deposition
3. Lithification

66
 2.3.2.2 Sediment
• Sediment = loose, solid particles and can be:
– Terrigenous = fragments from silicates (igneous and/or
metamorphics)
– Biogenic = fossils (carbonate - reefs; silicates - forams)
– Chemical = precipates (halite, gypsum, anhydrite, etc…) -
note: with chemical sedimentary rocks, evaporation >
precipitation and/or supersaturation in closed basins (lakes or
oceans)
• Classified by particle size
– Boulder - >256 mm
– Cobble - 64 to 256 mm
– Pebble - 2 to 64 mm
– Sand - 1/16 to 2 mm
– Silt - 1/256 to 1/16 mm
– Clay - <1/256 mm
Continued…

Figure: Processes in the formation of sedimentary rocks 69

Continued…
(1) Weathering and Erosion

Weathering
Weathering: the natural decay and breakdown of rock, or
drift, that is in contact with air and water; generally to depths of
less than 10 m.
No removal of decayed or broken pieces of rocks (particles) or
transportation is involved.
Types of weathering
a) Physical (Mechanical) weathering
b) Chemical weathering

70
 2.3.2.3 Erosion
The process of physical and chemical breakdown of rocks at or near th
surface with subsequent removal causing surface lowering is called
erosion.
Weathering + Transportation=Erosion
Removal or transportation by river, wind, glaciers or sea
water.
(2) Lithification : the processes by which a weak, loose sediment
is turned into a stronger sed/rock.
The processes of Lithification is calld diagenesis.
Three main processes of Lithification:
• Cementation
• Recrystallization
• Compaction/consolidation
Continued…
Cementation : The filling of the inter granular pore spaces by
deposition of a mineral cement brought in by circulating
groundwater. Rock strength is largely dependent on the type of
cement, which may be silica (strongest), iron oxides, calcite or
clay (weakest).
 The dominant process in sandstones.
Recrystallization: Small scale solution and redeposition of
mineral, so that some grains become smaller and some larger.
 The dominant process in Limestones.
Compaction: Restructuring and change of grain packing, with
decrease in volume, due to burial pressure, with consequent
reduction of porosity as water is squeezed out. Increase in
strength is due to more grain to grain contact.
 The dominant process in clays.
Consolidation: generally refers to the increase in strength in
clays, due to their restructuring, improved packing, loss of
water and reduced porosity caused by compaction under load.
2.3.2.4 Classification of sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks are classified into two on the basis of their mode of
formation. These are:
1. Clastic (detrital) rocks
2. Non-clastic (non-detrital) rocks

Clastic rocks: These are rocks formed from accumulation of broken

rock or fragments.
Non-Clastic rocks: are formed from accumulation of chemically
precipitated or organically derived matter.

73
 (1) Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
Clastic sedimentary rocks divided into 3 sub groups on the basis of average grain size of
particles or clasts. These are:

(a) Rudites (Rudaceous ) rocks

(b) Aranaceous rocks
(c) Lutites (Argillaceous rocks)

Sediment grain size

scale by Udden-
Wentworth

74
Examples of Rudites

(a) (b)

Figure: (a) and (b) are Conglomerates

(c) sedimentary breccia

(c) 75
(b) Arenaceous Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

Rock Grain Sediment Rock example Composition

group size & other features

0.06 – Sand Siliceous Made of coarse

Sandstone sand grains of
2mm
Arenite or quartz bound by
quartz cement
Aranaceous
rocks
Argillaceous Made of fine sand
Sandstone grains

76
Example of arenites
Examples of Arenaceous sedimentary rocks

77
Figure: Sandstone
Example of Arenaceous rocks

Figure: layered sandstone 78

(c) Argillaceous or Lutite Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

Rock Grain Sediment Rock example Composition

group size & other features

<0.06mm Silt Siltstone Very fine grained

rock, composed of
Lutites or quartz, feldspar
Argillaceous Clay Mudstone/clayst Extremely fine
rocks one grained rock,
composed of
quartze and clay
minerals

79
Example of Lutites
• Siltstone

80
Example of Lutite

81
Summary of classification of clastic sedimentary rocks

82
(2) Non-clastic sedimentary rocks
Non Clastic sedimentary rocks divided into 2 major groups:
(a) Chemically formed rocks
(b) Organically formed rocks
(a) Chemically formed Sedimentary Rocks

Rock group Rock type Rock Composition

examples
Carbonate Limestone Calcite (CaCO3)
Siliceous Chert Silica (SiO2)
Ferruginous Iron stone FeCO3, Iron oxides
Chemically
formed rock Rock gypsum Rock Gypsum
gypsum
Evaporites Rock salt a crystalline
aggregate of salt
grains, i.e., Halite
83
(NaCl)
Examples of chemically formed rocks

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure: (a) Chert (b) Ironstone (c) Rock salt

84
(d) Limestone
(b) Organically formed Sedimentary Rocks

Rock group Rock type Rock examples Composition

Biochemical Coquina Weak porous rock consisting

rocks of lightly cemented shells and
shell fragments.
Organically
Fossilifereous Parts of invertebrate organisms
formed rock
limestone such as mollusks, crinoids, and
corals cemented limestone with
calcium carbonate

Organic rock Coal Composed of highly altered

plant remains and varying
amounts of clay, varying in
color from brown to black.

85
ummary of non-clastic sedimentary rocks

86
 Sedimentary rocks and their depositional environment

87
Figure: Environment of deposition 88
2.2.4.3 Textures of sedimentary rocks
• Texture is the term, which describes the size, shape, and
arrangement of mineral grain.
• Texture of sedimentary rocks are defined by :
1. origin of grains
2. size of grain
3. sorting
4. shape of grains

1 ) Origin of the grains

• Clastic texture - If rocks rich in Clastic grains of any size,
shape and composition, then their texture is termed as
clastic.
• Non-clastic texture- If rocks are formed from chemically
or organically evolved grains, then the texture is termed as
non-clastic.
89
Continued…
2) Size of the grain
• Fine grained: if the grain size <0.06 mm
• Medium grained: if the grain size 0.06-2 mm
• Coarse grained: if the grain size >2 mm
3) Sorting
• Unsorted sedimentary rock: If the rock is formed from different
grain sizes, then it is called unsorted sedimentary rock.
• Well-sorted sedimentary rock: If the rock is formed from uniform
grain size, then it is called well-sorted sedimentary rock.

90
Continued…
4) Shape of the grains
• Grains outline can be well rounded, rounded, sub rounded, sub
angular, angular, and very angular.
• Roundness and sphericity are the indications of a greater amount of
abrasion and large distance of transportation in clastic rocks.

Length of travel increase

91
Figure: Showing the shape of the grains
2.4.4 Primary geological structures of sedimentary
rocks
Primary geological structures of sedimentary rocks are:
1) Stratification
2) Lamination
3) Graded bedding
4) Current bedding
5) Ripple marks
6) Mud cracks

92
(1) Stratification is layering, each layer ≥1cm in thickness
Strata are distinguished by variation in colour, grain size,
thickness, and composition.
Single layer = stratum, more than one layer = strata

93
Figure: Bedding or Stratification
 (2) Lamination is layering, each layer < 1cm, and
Single layer- Lamellae. Many layers-Lamella.

Fig: Lamination
94
(3) Graded bedding is a structure where the finest grain at
the top and the coarsest grain at the bottom by gradual
increase in grain size down to the bottom of each bed or
layer

Figure: Graded bedding 95

 Continued…

96
Fig: Graded bedding
(4) Current (cross)bedding is a structure where one set of beds is at
angle to another set of beds. It is also called cross bedding, oblique
bedding or false bedding

Figure: Current bedding 97

(5) Ripple marks: undulation on shallow depth situated sedimentary
rocks because wave action of open water
body

Figure: Ripple marks 98

(6) Mud crack: cracks made in mud or mud rock upon drying

(a)
(b)

Figure: Mud crack

99
***
2.3.2.5 Engineering importance of some sedimentary
rocks
• Conglomerates: are undesirable at the site of foundation of major civil engineering
structures. This is because of their incomplete cementation, Compositional heterogeneity of
grains and roundness of the grains.

• Sandstone
Siliceous sandstone: It is best to be used as building stone, as site of foundation, road
stone, railway ballast, and for tunneling. This is because it is well cemented; grains are angular
and are quartz in composition.

Argillaceous sandstone: it is not desirable because clayey matter on contact with

water forms weak and lubricating matter that causes a slippery base.

• Shale: is unsuitable as construction material. This is because of their fine-grained

nature and incompetent nature.

• Limestone: massive ones used as building stone and as railway ballast but may not
be durable. Mostly limestone not used as foundation rock because of its soluble
nature.
100
 2.3.3. Metamorphic rocks
• 2.3.3.1 Origin of metamorphic rocks
• Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have been formed by metamorphism of pre-
existing ( Protolith) (igneous and sedimentary) rocks.
• Metamorphism is the solid state transformation of pre-existing rocks into
texturally or mineralogically distinct new rock as the result of high
temperature, high pressure, or both.

101
 Cont.………

When rocks are

• baked by heat of molten magma or
• squeezed by the movements of huge tectonic plates or
• by the pressure of overlying thick succession of rocks

 They altered or changed beyond their recognition

i.e. change in Chemical composition, texture and
structure

Metamorphic rocks
102
 Cont…

 The process of metamorphism occurs because of

the effects of:
1) High temperature
2) High pressure
3) Chemically active fluids
•Hydrothermal fluids speed metamorphic reactions
because fluids allow for easy transport of ions and fluids
are consumed in some reactions.

The above 3 are also called the agents of

metamorphism

103
 Pressure

UNIFORM PRESSURE DIRECT or Differential PRESSURE

- increases with depth due to - increases with depth up to some
increase in overburden. extent, effective in the upper part
of the crust.
- acts in all direction and affects
only on solids resulting into - acts vertically downwards and -
deformation of shape and affects the volume of both liquid
change in mineral composition & solids.

- high temperature is also

- high temperature is not always
associated with (due to depth
associated. to depth factor)
factor)
- Lithostatic pressure- due to - Stress- due to tectonic
overburden forces
104
Cont…

105
 Temperature
• The source of temperature is either from magma or due
to the depth factor.
• Metamorphism usually result into change in mineral
composition and texture of rocks (Igneous and
Sedimentary) which are subjected to temperature.
> 1000 C and pressure > 1000’s Mpa.
• Low-grade metamorphism:
Occurs at about 1000 C to 5000 C.
• High-grade metamorphism:
Occurs at > 5000 C
2.3.3.2Metamorphic grades and facies

107
Cont...

110
 Metamorphic Grade
•Not all metamorphism occurs under the same conditions, so
geologists classify the metamorphic grade, or specific set of
conditions under which certain metamorphic rocks form
•Metamorphic Facies – groups of metamorphic minerals that
form under similar temperature and pressure conditions.
•Low-Grade – rocks that form under low temperatures (200-
320o C)
•Intermediate-Grade – rocks that form under temperatures
(320-600o C)
•High-Grade – rocks that form above ~600o C.
2.3.3.3 Classification of metamorphic rocks
These rocks are classified based on the presence or
absence of foliation.
The term ‘foliation’ refers the parallelism of in
equidimensional (i.e. platy and prismatic) minerals that
develop under the influence of pressure. That is the series of
parallel layers.
Metamorphic rocks are classified into two on the basis of
foliation. These are:
1. Foliated metamorphic rocks.
2. None-foliated metamorphic rocks.
1.Foliated metamorphic rocks: These rocks show foliation
with in them.
2.Massive or non-foliated metamorphic rocks: This group
includes rocks without foliation.

112
Formation of foliation
►Foliation: any planar fabric element (flattened)
►Lineation: any linear fabric
elements(stretched)

114
Continued…

115
Figure: Environment of metamorphism 116
Examples of foliated metamorphic rocks

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure: Foliated rocks (a) Slate (b) Schist (c) Phyllite (d)Gneiss 117
Examples of non-foliated metamorphic rocks

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure: non-foliated metamorphic rocks (a) Hornfels (b) Marble

(c) Quartzite 118
 2.3.3.4 Metamorphism of igneous rocks

If the parent rock is igneous rock, the metamorphism product is called

orthometamorhic rock.

119
2.3.3.5 Metamorphism of sedimentary rocks
• If the parent rock is sedimentary rock, the metamorphism
product is called Para metamorphic rock.

120
2.4 Rock cycle
The three groups of rocks, namely igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic,
which occur in nature, give birth one to each other due to different geological
process acting on them. This phenomenon is called rock cycle.
• Once a rock is formed it may be changed into a new type of rock by various
processes…
• The Rock Cycle is a mass transport cycle that outlines the progressive
transformation of Earth materials from one rock type to another.
weathering metamorphism

Granite Arkose Gneiss

121
Figure: shows rock cycle. 122
Continued…

124
Examples of 3 types of rocks formed
in the rock cycle:

125