Electricity and Magnetism
Electricity and Magnetism
Protons (+ charge)
Electrons (- charge)
Neutrons (no Charge)
If you had two of those
charged atoms in your hand
what would happen?
If they are the same charge.They
would push each other away;
repel each other.
Photocopier
(Inkjet printer)
Electric Field
An electric field is defined as a region in which an electric charge will experience a
force. A single point charge has a radial field pattern. The field lines of force are
directed away from a positive charge and towards a negative charge. The
closeness of the field lines also gives an indication of the strength of the electric
field at that point.
Induction
Induction charging is a method used to charge an object without actually
touching the object to any other charged object.
Charging by induction
Grounding
Grounding is the process of removing the excess charge on an object by means of
the transfer of electrons between it and another object of substantial size. When a
charged object is grounded, the excess charge is balanced by the transfer of
electrons between the charged object and a ground.
Questions
What is one way that static electricity can be hazardous?
● When the negative particles extend down to the grounds positive particles
and connect.
Conventional Current assumes that current flows out of the positive terminal,
through the circuit and into the negative terminal of the source.
Electron Flow is what actually happens and electrons flow out of the negative
terminal, through the circuit and into the positive terminal of the source.
Conventional Current VS Electron flow
Because we tend to associate the word “positive”
with “surplus” and “negative” with “deficiency,” the Others chose to designate charge flow
according to the actual motion of electrons in
standard label for electron charge does seem
a circuit. This form of symbology became
backward. Because of this, many engineers decided
known as electron flow notation:
to retain the old concept of electricity with “positive”
referring to a surplus of charge, and label charge flow
(current) accordingly. This became known as
conventional flow notation:
Current flow sim
Circuit Construction Kit: AC
The Ampere, A
One Ampere of current represents one Coulomb of electrical charge moving past a
specific point in one second.
Q=It
These elements are used in the manufacturing of computer chip transistors which
enables every electronic device to perform complex tasks.
Direct current
I = Q/t →
● Resistance, R – a measure of an electrical component opposition to the flow of charge. Voltage per
unit current
● S.I. unit: Ohm, Ω
Ohm’s law states that the voltage across a conductor is directly proportional to the current flowing through
it, provided all physical conditions and temperature remain constant.
Ohm’s law only holds true if the provided temperature and the other physical factors remain constant.
Electrical Quantities
● Power, P – the rate at which work is done or energy is converted.
● S.I. unit: Watt, W
Electrical Quantities
● Electromotive Force, E – the energy converted to electrical energy by a
source when unit charge passes through it.
● It is also the greatest p.d. that can be generated by a particular source of
electric current.
● E.m.f is associated with sources (or active devices) while p.d. is used in
reference to an electric field or load (passive device).
● In practice, the emf can be observed only when the source is not supplying
any current, because the source has internal resistance.
CIRCUIT AND
COMPONENTS
4.1 use symbols to construct circuit diagrams;
4.2 differentiate between series and parallel circuits;
4.3 explain the functions of the various parts of a zinc-carbon cell;
4.4 distinguish between primary and secondary cells;
4.5 draw a circuit diagram to show how a secondary cell can be recharged
4.6 investigate the relationship between current and potential difference;
Electrical Circuit
Electrical circuit is an
interconnection of
electrical components. An
electrical circuit consists
of batteries, resistors,
inductors, capacitors,
switches or transistors.
For example, an electric charge has a polarity of either positive or negative and a
magnet has a polarity, in that one end is the north pole and the other end is the
south pole.
BATTERY POLARITY
CELLS AND BATTERIES
All cells have two terminals (or electrodes), a
positive (+) and a negative (-).
The chemical reaction that gives out electrical energy can be reversed by
connecting the cell to a charger.
Although they are usually more expensive to buy than primary cells, they last
much longer, so are usually cheaper in the long term.
The zinc-carbon dry cell has a zinc electrode and a carbon electrode. When new,
the cell has a EMF of 1.5 V. This voltage falls as the cell is used. Over time the
zinc dissolves, meaning the cell is usually useless in less than a year.
Resistance
4.7 explain the concept of resistance;
4.8 apply the relationship I VR ;
4.9 explain why it is necessary for an ammeter to have a very low
resistance;
4.10 explain why it is necessary for a voltmeter to have a very high
resistance;
4.11 solve problems involving series and parallel resistance;
4.12 solve problems involving series, parallel and series-parallel circuits;
Electrical Resistance
R1+R2+R3 … = RT
The supply is a.c., with the live wire alternately positive and negative.
Every circuit is connected in parallel with the supply and receives the full mains
p.d.
Appliances must be connected to the correct voltage to ensure proper working and
to avoid damage.
Fuses
A fuse is a short length of wire with a low melting point, which melts and breaks
the circuit when the current through it is greater than a certain value.
Switches and fuses are always in the live wire so that switching off disconnects
the high voltage from an appliance.
The earth connection of sockets is joined to a metal water pipe in the house or to
an earth connection on the supply cable.
If, for example, a live wire touches the case, a large current flows to earth and
blows the fuse. Otherwise the case becomes ‘live’ and anyone touching it receives
a shock, which might be fatal.
Questions
1. What is the purpose of :
a. a fuse?
b. a circuit breaker?
c. an earth connection?
5. Give two reasons why appliances are connected in parallel with the supply
voltage.
This magnetic field is invisible but is responsible for the most notable property of a
magnet: a force that pulls on other ferromagnetic materials, such as iron, steel,
nickel, cobalt, etc. and attracts or repels other magnets.
There are always two places on a magnet (called the poles of the magnet) to
which magnetic materials are attracted.
MAGNETIC FIELDS
A magnetic field is a region in which a magnetic force may be exerted.
A magnetic field line indicates the direction of the magnetic force acting on an
N-pole.
Also, the closer the lines the stronger the magnetic field in that region. Parallel
lines indicate a uniform magnetic field.
Magnetic Fields
Temporary and Permanent magnets
Electromagnetism is
the physical interaction
among electric
charges, magnetic
moments, and the
electromagnetic field.
Educational
Gang Signs
● The direction of the magnetic field may
Right Hand Rule be shown using the right-hand grip rule:
If your right hand grasps the wire, with
the thumb pointing in the direction of the
current then your four folded fingers
would point in the direction of the
magnetic field.
● The magnetic field is cylindrical all along
the length of the straight wire.
Magnetic field of a straight wire
The magnetic field pattern around a straight wire carrying a current is circular
(concentric).
If the direction of the current is clockwise The right-hand grip rule for a
when viewed from one end of the coil, the solenoid: If the fingers of the right
magnetic field lines go into that end of the hand grip the solenoid in the direction
coil like the south pole of a bar magnet. of the current, the thumb points in the
direction of the N-pole.
If the direction of the current is
anti-clockwise when viewed from one end
of the coil, the magnetic field lines emerge
from that end of the coil like the north pole
of a bar magnet.
ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCE
When a conductor carrying a current is
placed in a magnetic field, it will
experience a force.
If the conductor is free to move, it will.
The force increases with the strength of
the magnetic field, the size of the
current and the length of the conductor.
The directions of the force, current and
magnetic field are described by
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule.
Fleming’s Left Hand rule
If the first finger, second finger and thumb of the left hand are held mutually
perpendicular to each other, so that the first finger points in the direction of the
magnetic field, and the second finger points in the direction of the current, the
thumb will point in the direction of the thrust or motion of the conductor.
THE D.C. MOTOR
A motor is a machine that converts electrical
energy into mechanical/kinetic energy. It uses
the behaviour of a current-carrying wire in the
presence of a magnetic field.
The direct current (d.c.) motor consists of a
rectangular coil of wire mounted on an axle so
that it can rotate between magnetic poles. The
two ends of the coil are soldered to the two
halves of a copper split-ring commutator. Two
carbon brushes are made to press lightly
against the commutator by means of springs.
Induced E.M.F.
The electromotive force (e.m.f.) of a source of electrical energy is the energy it
supplies to each coulomb of charge flowing round the complete circuit. It is equal
to the terminal p.d. on open circuit.
When a conductor is moved so that it cuts the flux (or lines of force) of a magnetic
field, an e.m.f is induced between the ends of the conductor.
Simple A.C. Generator
A generator is a machine for
converting mechanical energy into
electrical energy.
An alternating current (a.c.)
generator. Consists of a rectangular
coil between the poles of a
C-shaped magnet called the field
magnet. Each end of the coil is
connected to a slip ring, mounted
on the axle, against which carbon
brushes press lightly.
Transformers
7.13 explain the principle of operation of a transformer;
7.14 state the advantages of using a.c. for transferring
electrical energy;
7.15 apply the ideal transformer formula Pout = Pin.
TRANSFORMERS
A transformer is a device which is used
for changing the voltage of a supply of
varying or alternating current (a.c.)
without changing the frequency of the
supply.
The device consists essentially of two
electrically separate coils which are
magnetically linked usually by being both
wound on the same magnetic body or
structure called the “core” of the
transformer.
Structure
Thick insulated (enamelled)
copper wires are generally
used for making the coils and
both are insulated electrically
from the soft iron former or
core.
The core is usually constructed
as a compact set of identical
sections, called “laminations”,
which are electrically but not
magnetically insulated from one
another.
Principle of Operation
The action of a transformer is based on a phenomenon called electromagnetic
induction.
When an alternating potential difference (p.d.) is applied to the primary coil, the
resulting current produces a large alternating magnetic field or flux which reaches
the secondary coil and induces an e.m.f in it.
We say that secondary is “linked” to the primary.
The magnitude of the induced e.m.f depends on the p.d. applied to the primary
and on the relative numbers of turns Np and Ns, comprising the primary and
secondary coils, respectively.
THE IDEAL TRANSFORMER
No real transformer is 100% efficient but many in everyday use have efficiencies
which are extremely high (approaching 100%) compared with other types of
machines. Such high efficiencies are consistent with our understanding of the
electromagnetic principles involved in the operation of transformers and so the
concept on an “ideal” transformer is extremely useful from the theoretical and
practical standpoints.
∴ An ideal transformer may be defined as one for which the input and output
powers are equal. Hence Pout = Pin , by definition
Math time!
The secondary circuit is the output circuit, and the primary circuit is the input circuit
of a transformer, hence,