Summary of Defences to Pathogens

First Line of Defence

Physical Barriers Features
skin - Epidermis covered in keratin with a layer of flattened dead skin cells.
- High blood flow for WBC access.
- Wound sites quickly responded to.
mucous membranes - Specialised layers of cells that provide a protective layer of epithelium,
which also secretes mucus, lysozymes and immunoglobulins.
mucus - Produced by goblet cells, is a highly cohesive and adhesive substance that
traps pathogens.
cilia - Hair-like structures able to adhere to mucous and ‘beat’ to move mucus
out of the respiratory system.
vomiting and diarrhoea - Acts to quickly eject toxins/pathogens/microbes from the digestive
system.
increased urination - Frequent urination of small amounts of urine help expel pathogens in the
urinary tract.
wound healing - Platelets seal off wounds to prevent further bleeding and increased blood
flow (inflammation as well) helps to confront pathogens and to heal the
site of the wound.
Chemical Barriers Features
urine - Urinary tract is sterile and contains antimicrobial proteins.
sebum/sweat - Sebum waterproofs and lubricates surfaces of skin.
- Sweat contains lysozyme to break down bacterial cell walls.
saliva - Enzymatic fluid containing lysozyme and immunoglobulin A.
tears - Contains lysozyme, lactoferrin (iron-removing), lipocalin (transporter of
small hydrophobic molecules such as steroids), IgA, mucins.
gastric secretions - Stomach acid (HCl) produces highly acidic environment, unsuitable for
most pathogens.
- Pepsin also has antimicrobial properties due to breaking down of protein
structures.
- A rapid change of pH in the duodenum also helps deter pathogens.

Second Line of Defence

inflammation - Increased blood flow and temperature at site of infection combined with
increased permeability of blood vessels.
- Histamines trigger blood flow component
- Prostaglandins lead to pain/fever.
- Can be triggered without pathogens using damage-associated molecular
patterns (DAMPS) produced by damaged cells.
phagocytosis - Engulfing and digestion of foreign particles using lysozymes.
fever (pyrexia) - Pyrogens trigger fever response to elevate homeostatic body temperature
above normal.
- Enhances responses of WBCs and limits growth of pathogens due to less
than ideal conditions.
programmed cell death - Produces granuloma to seal off infected tissue.
(apoptosis)
compliment system - Additional proteins serve to compliment defence by recruiting WBCs and
also penetrating microbes to kill them off.
White Blood Cell Types Role
mast cell Blood vessel dilation through the release of heparin (anticoagulant) and histamine
(inflammation)
macrophage Phagocytosis of pathogens and cancerous cells. Can also present antigens.
natural killer cell Produce cytokines (signalling proteins) to stimulate immune responses and
releases cytotoxic granules containing perforin (membrane breakdown) and
granzymes (protease that triggers apoptosis), which leads to lysis of virally infected
cells and cancer cells.
dendritic cell Antigen-presenting cell, which triggers the adaptive immune response by signalling
for T-helper cells.
monocyte Differentiates into phagocytic cells (dendritic and macrophage).
neutrophil Acts as first responder (main WBC in pus/phlegm) and is able to locate pathogens
via chemotaxis (amoeboid movement using chemical signatures). Acts as a
phagocyte and produces antimicrobial chemicals that inhibit bacteria and fungi.
basophil Associated with coordinating inflammatory responses, producing histamine,
serotonin and heparin. Often found in high numbers near the site of a parasitic
infection.
eosinophil Releases cytotoxic chemicals and also plays a role in inflammation and allergenic
responses.

Third Line of Defence

cytokines Act to promote development and differentiation of T and B lymphocytes for the
adaptive immune response.
e.g. interleukins act to signal nearby cells and interferons ‘interfere’ with viral
replication by signalling uninfected cells to destroy RNA and slow protein
synthesis.
helper T cell Release cytokines to stimulate activation of B cells and cloning of cytotoxic T cells
memory B cell Lymphocytic cell that remains in lymph nodes upon exposure to pathogen, storing
the antigen information for a specific pathogen for the humoral response.
memory T cell Lymphocytic cell that remains in lymph nodes upon exposure to pathogen, storing
the antigen information for a specific pathogen for the cell-mediated response.
killer (cytotoxic) T cell Part of cell-mediated response (against intracellular pathogens). They target and
kill infected body cells.
suppresser T cells Stops the immune response once victory has been attained.
plasma cell Produces antibodies (immunoglobulins)
antibody Part of humoral response (in body fluids). They bind to pathogens within body fluid
by attaching to antigen sites that are unique for each pathogen.
There are five classes (A: innate, D: activates basophils and mast cells, E: targets
parasites and responds to allergies, G: secreted by plasma cells, M: attaches to
surface of B cell or in blood as early response)
primary vs secondary Primary short-lived with less antibody production, secondary response is faster
exposure with increased antibody production.