Ecological aspects of build environment

• From unsustainable to sustainable

development
• Urban problems related to energy
• Water conservation, rain water
harvesting, watershed
Management
Water conservation
Rain water harvesting
Watershed management
• Wasteland reclamation

1
• Until two decades ago the world looked at economic status alone as a
measure of human development.
• Thus countries that were economically well developed and where people were
relatively richer were called advanced nations while the rest where poverty
was widespread and were economically backward were called developing
countries.
• They not only exploited their own natural resources rapidly but also used the
natural resources of developing countries to grow even larger economies.
• However, this form of development did not add to the quality of life as the
environmental conditions had begun to deteriorate.
• Development strategies in which only economic considerations were used, had
begun to suffer from serious environmental problems due to air and water
pollution, waste management, deforestation and a variety of other ill effects
that seriously affected peoples’ well being and health.
2
• There were also serious equity issues between the “haves and the have not's”
in society, at the global and national levels. The disparity in the lifestyles
between the rich and the poor was made worse by these unsustainable
development strategies.
• Developing countries were suffering the consequences of a rapidly expanding
human population with all its effects on the over utilization of natural
resources.
• Thus increasingly the world began to see the need for a more equitable use of
earth resources.
• Development must begin to change from aiming at short term economic gains
to a long term sustainable growth that would not only support the well being
and quality of life of all people living in the world today but that of future
generations as well.

3
• Sustainable Development:
• The nations of the world came to clearly understand these issues at the Rio
Conference in 1992.
• Several documents were created for the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED), which brought out the fact that
environment and development were closely connected.
• Sustainable development is defined as development that meets the needs
of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs. It also looks at the equity between countries and
continents, races and classes, gender and ages.
• To ensure sustainable development, any activity that is expected to bring
about economic growth must also consider its environmental impacts so
that it is more consistent with long term growth and development.
4
• Many ‘development projects’, such as dams, mines, roads, industries and
tourism development, have severe environmental consequences that must be
studied before they are even begun.
• Thus for every project, in a strategy that looks at sustainable development,
there must be a scientifically and honestly done EIA, without which the project
must not be cleared.
• Large dams, major highways, mining, industry, etc. seriously damage
ecosystems that support the ecological health of a region.

5
URBAN PROBLEMS RELATED TO ENERGY
• Urban centres use enormous quantities of energy.
• Traditional housing in India required very little temperature adjustments as the
materials used, such as wood and bricks handled temperature changes better
than the current concrete, glass and steel of ultra modern buildings.

• Materials like iron, glass, aluminium, steel, cement, marble and burnt
bricks, which are used in urban housing, are very energy intensive. The
process of extraction, refinement, fabrication and delivery are all energy
consuming and add to pollution of earth, air and water. This energy
consumed in the process is called embodied energy.
6
URBAN PROBLEMS RELATED TO ENERGY
• Until the 1950s many urban kitchens were based on fuel wood or charcoal.
This was possible and practical when homes had chimneys and kitchens
were isolated from the rest of the house. Smoke became a problem once
this changed to apartment blocks. Kerosene thus became a popular urban
fuel. This changed to electrical energy and increasingly to natural gas by
the 1970s in most parts of urban India.
• Urban centers in hot climates need energy for cooling. The early systems of
fans changed into air-conditioning, which consumes enormous quantities
of energy. New buildings in our country have taken to using large areas
covered by glass. While in cold climates this uses the green house effect to
trap the warmth of the sun inside, in our hot climate this adds several
degrees to the temperature inside.

7
URBAN PROBLEMS RELATED TO ENERGY
• Urban transport depends on energy mainly from fossil fuels. Most urban
people use their own individual transport rather than public transport systems
for a variety of reasons.

• Urban transport in different cities and even different parts of a city are either
inefficient or overcrowded. This means more and more vehicles on the road
which leads to traffic congestion, waste of time for all the commuters, and a
great load of particulate matter and carbon monoxide from the exhaust of
vehicles.

• This causes a rise in the number of people having serious respiratory diseases.
8
WATER CONSERVATION, RAIN WATER HARVESTING, WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
Water conservation:
• Clean water is becoming increasingly scarce globally. With deforestation
surface runoff increases and the sub soil water table drops as water has no
time to seep slowly into the ground once vegetation is cleared.
• As many areas depend on wells, it has become necessary to go on making
deeper and deeper wells. This adds to the cost and further depletes
underground stores of water.
• As deforestation and desertification spreads due to extensive changes in land
use the once perennial rivers are becoming increasingly seasonal.
• Over use and misuse due to various activities that waste water or cause
pollution has led to a serious shortage of potable drinking water.
• Newer forms of irrigated agriculture such as sugarcane and other water hungry
cash crops required enormous quantities of water. However, such irrigated
areas become waterlogged, saline and unproductive. 9
WATER CONSERVATION, RAIN WATER HARVESTING, WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
• Saving water in agriculture:
• Drip irrigation supplies water to plants near its roots through a system of
tubes, thus saving water.
• Small percolation tanks and rainwater harvesting can provide water for
agriculture and domestic use.
• Rainwater collected from rooftops can be stored or used to effectively
recharge subsoil aquifers.
• Saving water in urban settings:
• Leaking taps and pipes are a major source of loss of water.
• Canals and pipes carrying water from dams to the consumer lead to nearly
50% loss during transfer.
• Reducing the demand for water by saving it is more appropriate than trying
to meet growing demands.
10
WATER CONSERVATION, RAIN WATER HARVESTING, WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
Rain water harvesting:
• It is a technique of increasing the groundwater by capturing and storing rainwater
through special water harvesting structures like dug-wells, percolation pits, lagoons
and check dams.
• Proves useful not only for poor and scanty rainfall regions but also rich ones.
Objectives:
• Reduce run-off
• Avoid flooding
• Meet increasing demands of water
• Raise water table by recharging ground water
• Reduce groundwater contamination
• Supplement groundwater supplies during lean season.
11
WATER CONSERVATION, RAIN WATER HARVESTING, WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
Traditional RWH:

• Hollow bamboos as pipelines in Himalayan foothills, tankas and khadims in

Rajasthan, taalabs, baawaris, johars, hauz, etc.

Modern techniques of RWH:

• Artificial groundwater recharging through shallow percolation tanks.

• Check dams

• Groundwater dams (reduces evaporation losses, reduces contamination)

• Rooftop RWH 12
WATER CONSERVATION, RAIN WATER HARVESTING, WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
Watershed Management:

• Rivers originate in streams that flow down mountains and hill slopes.

• A group of small streams flow down hillsides to meet larger streams in the
valley which forms the tributaries of major rivers.

• The management of a single unit of land with its water drainage system is
called watershed management.

• It is a technique that has several components such as soil and water

management and developing vegetative cover.
13
WATER CONSERVATION, RAIN WATER HARVESTING, WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
Watershed Management Principles:
• This is a land management program that looks at a region from the perspective
of all its water related issues.
• It can be used to manage a river from its source to its termination.
• Watershed management could also consider the management of a single
valley as a unit, based on its small streams.
• Saving water from its local source by allowing it to percolate into the ground
by nala plugs and check dams instead of allowing it to run off rapidly along the
surface during the monsoon, is a major aspect of good watershed
management.
• This allows underground aquifers to fill so that ground water is recharged.
• Deforestation is a major cause of poor water supply. Afforesting such degraded
areas is an important aspect of watershed management.
14
WASTELAND RECLAMATION:
• Economically unproductive lands suffering
from environmental deterioration are known
as wastelands.
• These include salt-affected lands, sandy
areas, gullied areas, undulating uplands,
barren hills-ridges, etc.
• Snow covered areas, glacial areas and areas
rendered after Jhum cultivation are also
included in wastelands.
• Anthropogenic activities leading to eroded,
saline, or waterlogged lands are also
classified as wastelands.
15
WASTELAND RECLAMATION:
• Wasteland can be classified into three forms: (1) Easily reclaimable, (2) Reclaimable
with some difficulty, (3) Reclaimable with extreme difficulty.
• Easily reclaimable wastelands can be used for agricultural purposes.
• Those which can be reclaimed with some difficulty can be utilized for agro forestry.
• Wastelands that are reclaimed with extreme difficulty can be used for forestry or to
recreate natural ecosystems.
• Agriculture: Wasteland can be reclaimed for agriculture by reducing the salt content
which can be done by leaching and flushing. Gypsum, urea, potash and compost are
added before planting crops in such areas.
• Agro forestry: This involves putting land to multiple uses. Its main purpose is to have
trees and crops inter- and /or under planted to form an integrated system of biological
production within a certain area. Thus, agro forestry implies integration of trees with
agricultural crops or livestock management simultaneously.
16
WASTELAND RECLAMATION:
• Forestry: Attempts to grow trees in highly non alkaline saline soils have been largely
unsuccessful. Field experiments have shown that species like Eucalyptus, Prosopis and
Acacia Nilotica could not be grown in highly alkaline soil. Studies have shown that if tree
seedlings are planted with a mixture of original soil, Gypsum, and manure, better growth
can be achieved. It is however important to use indigenous species of trees so that the
program recreates the local ecosystem with all its species.
Need for wasteland development:
• Source of income for the rural poor.
• Constant supply of fuel, fodder and timber for local use.
• Makes the soil fertile by preventing soil erosion and conserving moisture.
• Maintains an ecological balance in the area.
• Maintaining local climatic conditions.
• Regenerated vegetation cover helps in attracting birds which feed on pests in the
surrounding fields and function as natural pest controllers.
• Trees help in holding back moisture and reduce surface run of rates thus helping in the
control of soil erosion.
17
Components of wasteland reclamation:
Identification of the problem at the micro level.
• District, Village and plot level surveys of the wasteland.
• A profile of the maps indicating the detailed distribution and information on the wasteland is essential.
• Done through a participatory exercise that involves all the different stakeholders in the community
such as think-tank of administrators, ecologists, and local NGOs.
Identify the factors that are responsible for the formation of wastelands.
Based on these factors the wasteland is classified into: marginally, partially or severely deteriorated
lands.
Locale specific strategies for reclaiming the wasteland must be worked out.
Government officials along with the local NGOs must assist the farmers by demonstrating improved
methods of cultivation, arranging for loans for the small, marginal and landless farmers and the people
from the weaker sections of the society.
Organize publicity campaigns, integrated with training farmers and frontline Government and Forest
Department staff on the various aspects of wasteland utilization.
Environmental scientists can help by suggesting the necessary changes in cropping patterns particularly
for drought prone areas.

18
WASTELAND RECLAMATION PRACTICES:
• In India, the wasteland reclamation and development falls under the purview
of the Wasteland Development Board, which works to fulfil the following
objectives:
• Improve the physical structure and quality of marginal soils.
• Improve the availability of good quality water for irrigating these lands.
• Prevent soil erosion, flooding, and landslides.
• Conserve the biological resources of land for sustainable use.

19
 There are however situations where communi- to the urban sector. Wealth also shifts in the
ties request for shifting to a new site. This is same direction. This unequal distribution of
often observed where people live inside or on wealth and access to land and its resources is a
the periphery of a National Park or Wildlife Sanc- serious environmental concern. An equitable
tuary. In these situations, such as the Gir in sharing of resources forms the basis of sustain-
Gujarat, the local people have asked to be given able development for urban, rural and wilder-
alternate land where they could live peacefully ness dwelling communities. As the political
away from lions that kill their cattle, but the Gov- power base is in the urban centers, this itself
ernment has been unable to find suitable areas leads to inequalities and a subsequent loss of
where they can be shifted for decades. sustainability in resource management in the
rural and even more so for forest dwelling
people.
6.5 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS: ISSUES AND
POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS In 1985, Anil Agarwal published the first report
on the Status of India’s Environment. It empha-
Environmental ethics deals with issues related sized that India’s environmental problems were
to the rights of individuals that are fundamen- caused by the excessive consumption patterns
tal to life and well being. This concerns not only of the rich that left the poor poorer. It was ap-
the needs of each person today, but also those preciated for the first time that tribals, especially
who will come after us. It also deals with the women and other marginalized sectors of our
rights of other living creatures that inhabit our society, were being left out of economic devel-
earth. opment. There are multiple stakeholders in In-
dian society who are dependent on different
natural resources which cater directly or indi-
6.5.1 Resource consumption patterns and rectly to their survival needs. Anil Agarwal
the need for their equitable utilisation: brought forth a set of 8 propositions which are
of great relevance to the ethical issues that are
Environmental ethics deals with issues that are related to environmental concerns. These in-
related to how we utilise and distribute re- clude:
sources. Can individuals justifiably use resources
so differently that one individual uses resources 1. Environmental destruction is largely caused
many times more lavishly than other individuals by the consumption of the rich.
who have barely enough to survive? In a just
world, there has to be a more equitable sharing 2. The worst sufferers of environmental de-
of resources than we encounter at present. The struction are the poor.
just distribution of resources has global, national
and local concerns that we need to address. 3. Even where nature is being ‘recreated’, as
There are rich and poor nations. There are rich in afforestation, it is being transformed
and poor communities in every country. And away from the needs of the poor and to-
there are rich and poor families. In this era of wards those of the rich.
modern economic development, the disparity
between the haves and have-nots is widening. 4. Even among the poor, the worst sufferers
Our human environments in the urban, rural and are the marginalised cultures and occupa-
wilderness sectors, use natural resources that tions, and most of all, women.
shift from the wilderness (forests, grasslands,
wetlands, etc.) to the rural sector, and from there

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 5. There cannot be proper economic and so- crustacea, are seriously affected by the degra-
cial development without a holistic under- dation of aquatic ecosystems. Fuelwood gath-
standing of society and nature. erers from different types of forests, and
pastoralists who are dependent on common
6. If we care for the poor, we cannot allow grazing lands suffer when their resources are
the Gross Nature Product to be destroyed depleted.
any further. Conserving and recreating na-
ture has become our highest priority. Several marginalised sectors of society are most
affected by deforestation, or the loss of grass-
7. Gross Nature Product will be enhanced only land tracts, or the deterioration of perennial
if we can arrest and reverse the growing water sources. All these effects can be linked to
alienation between the people and the com- unsustainable increasing pressures on land and
mon property resources. In this we will have natural resources.
to learn a lot from our traditional cultures.

8. It is totally inadequate to talk only of sus- “I am often amazed and extremely angry,
tainable rural development, as the World when people talk about Environment Edu-
Conservation Strategy does. We cannot cation for the villages. It is the so-called, edu-
save the rural environment or rural people cated people who need Environment
dependent on it, unless we can bring about Education more than anyone else”.
sustainable urban development. – Anil Agarwal, ‘Human-Nature Interac-
tions in a Third World Country’.

Equitable use of forest resources: We

think of forests as being degraded due to The well to do educated urban dweller con-
fuelwood collection by poor rural communi- sumes much larger quantities of resources and
ties, but forget that the rich use much greater energy, than the traditional rural individual. Ur-
quantities of timber. Biomass based indus- ban dwellers who are far removed from the
tries include cotton textiles, paper, plywood, source of natural resources that sustain their lives
rubber, soap, sugar, tobacco, jute, choco- thus require exposure to a well-designed envi-
late, food processing and packaging. These ronment education program to appreciate these
need land, energy, irrigation and forest re- issues. While the rural people have a deep in-
sources. Do each of us realise this when we sight on the need for sustainable use of natural
utilise, use excessively or waste these re- resources and know about methods of conser-
sources that we get indirectly from the for- vation, there are however several newer envi-
ests? ronmental concerns that are frequently outside
their sphere of life experiences. Their traditional
knowledge of environmental concerns cannot
Who pays for the cost of environmental degra-
be expected to bring about an understanding
dation? Most sections of society do not feel the
of issues such as global warming, or problems
direct effects of degradation of the environment
created by pollution, pesticides, etc. These
till it is too late. Those who suffer most are the
people thus require a different pattern of envi-
poor, especially rural women, and tribal people
ronment education that is related to their gaps
who are dependent on forests. Traditional fish-
in information. With the rapidly changing rural
ermen who are dependent on streams and riv-
scenario the development that is thrust on un-
ers, and coastal people who fish and catch
suspecting rural communities needs to be ad-

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 dressed through locale specific environment such as in South and Southeast Asia and South
awareness programs designed specifically for America. People living in the economically ad-
rural school children and adults. This must also vanced nations use greater amounts of resources
use their local traditional knowledge systems as and energy per individual and also waste more
a base on which modern concepts can be built, resources. This is at the cost of poor people who
rather than by fostering concepts that are com- are resource dependant and live in developing
pletely alien to their own knowledge systems. nations.

Common property resources in India once in- The economically advanced West has exploited
cluded vast stretches of forests, grazing lands their own natural resources to such an extent
and aquatic ecosystems. When the British found that they have exhausted them nearly every-
that they were unable to get enough wood for where. They now buy their resources from re-
ship building and other uses they converted for- source rich but economically deprived nations
est areas into Government ‘Reserved Forests’ for at a low cost. This depletes the developing na-
their own use to grow timber trees. This alien- tions of natural resources on which their poor
ated local people from having a stake in pre- depend for their livelihood.
serving these resources. This in turn led to
large-scale losses in forest cover and the cre- Changing this unfair economic practice to a
ation of wasteland. In the past, in traditional more just and fair way in managing trade would
villages that were managed by local panchayats, require a new thinking on the part of people
there were well defined rules about managing who live in the super rich countries.
grazing lands, collecting forest resources, pro-
tecting sacred groves, etc. that supported con-
servation. There was a more or less equitable 6.5.3 Urban – rural equity issues
distribution that was controled by traditional
mechanisms to prevent misuse of common prop- The common property of rural communities has
erty resources. Any infringement was quickly increasingly been used to supply the needs of
dealt with by the panchayat and the offender the urban sector. Land itself that was once held
was punished. Common property resources as a common property resource of villages is
were thus locally protected by communities. As being taken over by the urban and industrial
landuse patterns changed, these mechanisms sectors as it expands. The rural sector not only
were lost and unsustainable practices evolved, supplies food, but also a part of the energy needs
frequently as a result of an inadequately planned (mainly fuelwood) to most towns and cities in
development strategy. India, at a pittance. As a result, the commons of
the rural sector are being depleted of their re-
sources. Thus while the cities get richer, the ru-
6.5.2 Equity – Disparity in the Northern and ral sector, especially the landless, get poorer.
Southern countries The urban rich must appreciate where their re-
sources are derived from and be willing to pay a
Environmental ethics are concerned with, who fair price for using them.
owns resources and how they are distributed.
This can be looked upon at different levels. At
the global level it deals with the great North – 6.5.4 The need for Gender Equity
South divide between the rich industrialized
nations of North America and Europe, as against All over India, especially in the rural sector,
the needs of developing countries of the South women work on the whole longer hours than

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 men. The life of a woman is enmeshed in an natural resources more deeply than men. Thus
inextricable cycle of poverty. In attempting to several environmental movements such as
eke out a living from their environment, they Chipko have been more strongly supported by
must constantly collect fuelwood for their homes local women folk rather than men.
and for sale to nearby urban areas. They labori-
ously collect fodder for their cattle. They have
to trudge several kilometers to reach a reason- 6.5.5 Preserving resources for future gen-
ably clean water source. And finally must cook erations:
meals in a smoky unhealthy atmosphere on crop
waste or other inefficient sources of energy. All Can we use up all the resources of the world,
this can take 10 to 12 hours a day of very hard leaving nothing for our future generations? This
work, every day of the year. There is thus the ethical issue must be considered when we use
question of who should control the environmen- resources unsustainably. If we overuse and mis-
tal resources of a rural community. Unfortu- use resources and energy from fossil fuels, our
nately it is the men who play a decisive role in future generations would find survival much
managing the village commons and its resources more difficult. A critical concern is to preserve
whereas it should be the local women whose species and natural undisturbed ecosystems that
lives are deeply linked with the utilisation and are linked with bioresources, which must be
conservation patterns of natural resources, who protected for the use of future generations. Our
should be decision makers at the local level. Un- generation does not own the world’s resources
fortunately women have not been given an to do whatever we please with them. Just as
equal opportunity to develop and better their our ancestors have left resources for us, it is our
lot. This begins with the lack of attention given duty to leave them behind for our future gen-
to girls whose education is always given less at- erations. These unborn people have a right to
tention than the boys in the family. Unless soci- these resources. We only hold the world as trust-
ety begins to see that development cannot be ees so that future generations can also survive.
planned by a male dominated society from the
male perspective alone, will we be able to cre- Our current development strategies have led to
ate a better living environment for women and environmental resources being overused and
their children? misused by our present generation, without a
thought for the needs of future unborn gen-
The great divide between women and men is erations. We need to appreciate that the next
most apparent in communities that live near generation and those that will come later also
forests and have by tradition made the woman have a right to the earth’s natural resources. As
play a greater role than men in collection of they are not here today to exercise their rights,
natural resources. Women fetch water, collect it is our generation’s responsibility to appreci-
fuelwood, fruit, medicinal products, etc. day in ate the needs of future generations. We have
and day out, while the men work only sporadi- no right to destroy their claim to the use of the
cally in the fields. This disparity in the lives of earth’s resources just because of the accident
women and men has also led to a lower access of being born before them. Development strat-
to education and health care for girl children. egies have not looked at the sustainable levels
at which we can use resources so that the rights
This has deep implications for the rate of utili- of future generations are protected. We are not
zation of natural resources and its conservation. given the earth so that we can use up its re-
Rural women who are intimately connected to sources. It is given to us to hold in trust so that
resources, appreciate the value of conserving

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 future generations are given their just share of nature by itself has natural prey-predator rela-
the earth’s resources. tionships, left to itself, nature maintains a bal-
ance in each ecosystem. While evolution has
developed a system whereby species become
6.5.6 The rights of animals: extinct and new ones evolve to fill the world’s
ecosystems with new plant and animal species,
Can man, a single species, use and severely ex- it is man alone that has been responsible for
ploit the earth’s resources which we share with the recent rapid decline in the number of spe-
billions of other plant and animal species? Within cies on earth. Much more important man is now
our world there are a variety of living beings. reducing the abundance levels of so many spe-
The plants and animals that share the earth with cies that in the near future we will in all prob-
us too have a right to live and share our earth’s ability create a major extinction spasm on earth
resources and living space. We have no right to that will seriously endanger the existence of
push a species that has taken millions of years mankind. Thus endangering the existence of
to evolve towards extinction. Not only do wild wild plants and animals and bringing them close
and domesticated animals have a right to life, to the brink of extinction is not only unfair to a
but have the right to a dignified existence. Cru- species but also to future generation of people
elty to an animal is no different ethically from who may find them of great use. Quite apart
cruelty to another human being. from the use of these species, there is a strong
ethical basis for the rights of animals and plants
to exist on earth. Every individual, human or
Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophy was based on animal, that is living has feelings and emotions.
the assumption that human beings were not Cruelty to animals is a crime that must be re-
masters of the other forms of life. He be- garded seriously and action must be taken
lieved that humans were ‘trustees of the against offenders. Animals have a right to a dig-
lower animal kingdom’. nified existence, and their life, well-being and
liberty must be respected. While dominating
over the animal world due to his superior intel-
Human beings are one small cog in the wheel ligence, man cannot remain unfeeling to the
of life on earth. We frequently forget that man right to life and well being of other species. There
has learned to exploit nature and other species is a growing awareness of animal rights in our
well beyond what we should use justifiably. Ev- country and cruelty to animals is being increas-
ery plant and animal has a right to life as a part ingly regarded as a criminal offence.
of our earth’s community of living things. While

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 CASE STUDY but that this has led to serious floods and loss
of precious soil.
Chipko movement
Chipko activists have made long padyatras
About 300 years ago, a ruler in Rajasthan de- across the Himalayas protesting against de-
cided to fell ‘khejri’ trees in his State to create forestation. The movement has been highly
lime. Local women led by a Bishnoi woman, successful and has been primarily supported
Amrita Devi, clung to the trees to prevent the by empowering local women’s groups who
felling of the trees that formed the basis of are the most seriously affected segment of
the scarce resources on which they were de- society by deforestation. The movement has
pendent. The women were ruthlessly massa- proved to the world that the forests of the
cred. It is said that the ruler later realised his hills are the life support systems of local com-
mistake. The story however has been remem- munities of immense value in terms of local
bered and was revived in the 1970s when se- produce that is essential for the survival of lo-
vere tree felling for timber in the Himalayas cal people and that the forest has less quanti-
prompted local women, supported by people fiable but even more important ecological
such as Sunderlalji Bahuguna and Chandi services such as soil conservation and the main-
Prasad Bhat, led a people’s movement to pre- tenance of the natural water regime of the
vent deforestation by timber contractors. They whole region.
called their movement the ‘Chipko’ movement
in memory of the event during which women The ability of local women to band themselves
had clung to their trees and given up their together in the foothills of the Himalayas goes
lives. The movement followed the path the back to the pre Independence days when
300 Bishnoi women had taken three centu- women such as Miraben, a disciple of Gandhiji,
ries ago in Rajasthan. moved to this region and understood that it
was the deforestation that led to floods and
Chipko is a movement primarily begun and devastation of villages in the valleys and in the
supported by local women in the hills of Gangetic plains below. They also appreciated
Uttarakhand and Garhwal, where the women that substitutions of oak and other
have had to bear the brunt of deforestation. broadleaved forests of the Himalayas by plant-
They have not only realised that their fuelwood ing fast growing pine for timber and resin was
and fodder resources have receded away from an ecological and social disaster which reduced
their ‘resource use areas’ around their settle- the forest resources used by traditional hill
ments due to commercial timber extraction, communities.

6.5.7 The ethical basis of environment edu- lege level be exposed to a course on environ-
cation and awareness: ment. It is not to create only an awareness of
environmental issues, but also to bring about
Perhaps the most important concern is related pro environmental action. Among the variety
to creating an ethos that will support a sustain- of tools that can bring home the ethical issues
able lifestyle in society. This brings us to the need of the environment, no solution is as powerful
for environmental education. The Honorary Su- as real life experiences in nature. Creating a love
preme Court of our country has thus ordered for nature brings about strong pro environmen-
that every young individual at school and col- tal action. Our current educational processes at

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 school and college level are being reoriented to
bring this about. Education in nature – The Shantiniketan
model

The Gandhian way of life Rabindranath Tagore founded Shantiniketan

and taught an environment-based philoso-
Mahatma Gandhi had deep insights into the phy. Tagore’s philosophy of education fo-
need to conserve resources. ‘Mans needs but cused attention on the need for a
not his greed can be supported by our earth’ harmonious association between human
was an important concept that was initiated beings and their environment. To achieve this
by him when people had not realized how he relied on exposing young people to na-
short the world would be of resources in ture. This went back to our roots where in
future. At the time natural resources seemed ancient India, learning centers were estab-
to be limitless to most people. This was thus lished in remote forests. Tagore linked these
a new concept and suggested the need for concepts with celebrations of nature through
a uniquely different pattern of living. music, dance, drama and poetry. At
Shantiniketan, there were celebrations for
Gandhiji believed in simplistic living to save each season and ceremonial tree planting.
our earth’s resources. He once said that if He started Vriksha ropan way back in 1928.
India was to become an industrial nation on In fact much of what was initiated in
the lines of England, the world itself would Shantiniketan is now accepted as the route
be stripped bare of its resources by India’s to environment education and sustainable
people alone. living and is essentially based on preserving
nature.

There are two aspects that are closely connected Many species were not only valued, but also ven-
with ethical issues that are related to our envi- erated.
ronment. These are based on valuing nature and
appreciating the beauty of nature and treasur- In today’s world where many of us are far re-
ing the magnificence of the wilderness. moved from nature, we need to remind our-
selves that everything we use, if tracked back
Valuing nature as a resource: It is essential that to its source, has come from nature. We de-
a value system that is based on environmental pend on an intact unpolluted world which is
concern becomes a part of the thinking that we based on nature’s goods and services. No life is
as responsible citizens of our country and our possible without this. If we as citizens begin to
earth need to bring into our own daily lives. again respect Nature and all its varied species
For our ancestors, Nature was considered to be forming a complex web of life, and appreciate
like a mother. This has been essentially forgot- Nature’s functions and services, it will continue
ten. In ancient India, forests were considered to support our lives. If we disrespect nature one
sacred. We now know that forests clean up our cannot expect her to continue to support our
air, and act like a sponge that can hold water well being. Nature’s resources that we all use
for the dry season. In the Hindu scriptures, Bud- and depend on can only be optimized if they
dhist philosophy and especially in the Jain reli- are equitably shared by all of us. If the disparity
gion, each and every species on earth is is too great it can only result in anarchy. The
supposed to have a place in the scheme of life. ‘have not’s’ cannot be expected to remain in

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 abject poverty, making a bare minimum living or seashore where man’s hand has not made
from the meager resources they can get, while drastic changes to the ecosystem and one be-
the ‘haves’, who are already rich become richer gins to value its beauty. It is there to heal the
through unsustainable consumer oriented, human soul and elevate his spirit. Without the
short-term economic development strategies. wilderness, the earth would be a sad bleak hu-
man dominated landscape. The problem is how
Bringing back an ethic for nature conservation much of the wilderness can we preserve in the
requires environment education and conserva- presence of an ever-growing hunger for land
tion awareness. The best way to do so is to ex- and resources for its utilitarian values. Unless
pose young people not only to our dependence we begin to see the ecological values of the wil-
on natural resources from the wilderness, but derness, an ethic for its conservation cannot
by bringing about an appreciation of the beauty become part of our daily lives. And without the
and wondrous aspects of nature. This forms a wilderness the earth will eventually become
sharp contrast to the sad plight of degraded unlivable.
areas and polluted sites in which most of hu-
manity now lives in the developed and develop- The concept of ‘Karma’ is based on a thinking
ing world. that the soul moves from man to animal and in
reverse depending on ones actions. This itself
Appreciating the beauty of Nature and treasur- brings about a concept of the oneness of all
ing the magnificence of the Wilderness: We of- forms of life. Ahimsa or non-violence towards
ten take Nature for granted. We rarely take the life which includes all plants and animals pro-
opportunity to gaze at a scenic sunset, or spend vides India with its basic philosophy which early
the time to sit in the incredible silence of the Hindu philosophers and later sages such as Bud-
forest, or listen to the songs of birds and the dha, Mahavir and Mahatma Gandhi spoke of.
sound of the wind rustling through the leaves. Buddhist and Jain philosophy is intrinsically wo-
Or take the trouble to watch the magic of a ven around non-violence and the great value of
seed germinating from the ground and gradu- all forms of ‘life’. It brings in the notion that
ally growing into a seedling over several days. animals are not to be viewed purely for their
Or observe a tree through a round of seasons utility value but are a part of the earth’s one-
as it gets new leaves, flowers, fruit and seeds. ness which is linked with our own lives as well.
Or reflect on the incredibly large number of link- In Hindu philosophy the earth itself is respected
ages between all the different animals and birds and venerated. In contrast, in Western thought
that depend on the seasonal changes in their Nature is to be subjugated and used. These are
habitat. It is the beauty of Nature that gives it basic differences in thinking processes. Several
an intrinsic value which we tend to ignore. These modern philosophers in the West have now
are not mundane day to day events, they are begun to see these eastern patterns of thought
magical and mystical aspects of nature’s clock as a new basis for human development. This
that is ticking silently all around us. They are shift however, from a purely utilitarian or scien-
part of our living throbbing earth. If we fail to tific exploitation of Nature, to one of harmony
enjoy these wondrous aspects of Nature our lives with Nature, can only occur if each of us loves
will always remain empty. and respects nature’s great ‘oneness’.

Once we realise that the wilderness has a value

all its own, this puts man in his rightful role as a
custodian of nature rather than an exploiter. Visit
a wilderness area, a forest, lakeside, waterfall,

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 6.5.8 The conservation ethic and traditional invaluable help to Rama during his travels to
value systems of India Lanka. The Sun god, Surya, rides a horse and
has a superb chariot on which he moves through
In ancient Indian traditions people have always the sky. The lion is linked to Durga and the
valued mountains, rivers, forests, trees and sev- blackbuck to the moon godess. The cow is as-
eral animals. Thus much of nature was vener- sociated with Krishna. Vishnu’s incarnations
ated and protected. Forests have been have been represented as taking various animal
associated with the names of forest gods and forms which serially include, fish, tortoise, a boar
goddesses both in the Hindu religion as well as and a dwarf, and a half man half lion form.
in tribal cultures. ‘Tree’ goddesses have been
associated with specific plant species. Ficus The associations to various plants that have been
religiosa, the peepal tree, is venerated and is given a religious significance include Tulsi, which
thus not to be cut down. The Banyan tree in is linked to Lakshmi and Vishnu. The Tulsi plant
some regions such as Maharashtra, is venerated is also linked to the worship of ones own ances-
once a year by tying a thread around it as a tors. The peepal tree is said to be the tree under
symbol of respect. The Tulsi plant is grown on which Buddha attained enlightenment. It is also
the doorstep outside every home. associated with Vishnu and Krishna. Several trees
are associated with the goddess Laxmi, includ-
Patches of forest have been dedicated to a de- ing Amalaki, Mango and the Tulsi shrub.
ity in many Indian cultures especially in tribal
areas. These traditionally protected forest Traditions also held that these species, which
patches depict the true nature of undisturbed were considered as an important aspect of Na-
vegetation and have a large number of indig- ture, were the basis of local life support systems
enous plant species as their exploitation has been and were integral to bringing about a harmoni-
controlled through local sentiments. ous life. In traditional societies of the past, these
examples were all a part of ethical values that
Certain species of trees have been protected as protected nature. As modern science based on
they are valued for their fruit or flowers. The the exploitation on nature spread into India,
mango tree is protected for its fruit around most many of these traditions began to lose their ef-
farms even when wood becomes scarce. The fectiveness as measures that led to conserving
Mohua tree (Madhuca indica) is protected by nature.
tribal people as it provides edible flowers, oil
from its seeds and is used to make a potent Concepts that support nature’s integrity must
alcohol. Many plants, shrubs and herbs have thus become a part of our modern educational
been used in Indian medicines which were once systems. This constitutes a key solution to bring
available in the wild in plenty. These are now about a new ethic of conserving nature and liv-
rapidly vanishing. Many species of animals are ing sustainable lifestyles.
venerated as being the ‘vahan’ or vehicle of dif-
ferent gods on which they are said to travel
through the cosmos.

In Indian mythology, the elephant is associated

with Ganesha. The elephant headed Ganesha
is also linked to the rat. Vishnu is associated with
the eagle. Rama is linked to monkeys. In my-
thology, Hanuman, the monkey god, rendered

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 6.6 CLIMATE CHANGE, GLOBAL WARMING, Niño is likely to increase. Global mean sea level
ACID RAIN, OZONE LAYER DEPLETION, is projected to rise by 9 to 88 cm by the year
NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS AND HOLOCAUST 2100. More than half of the world’s population
now lives within 60km of the sea. They are likely
6.6.1 Climate change: to be seriously impacted by an ingress of salt
water and by the rising sea. Some of the most
The average temperature in many regions has vulnerable regions are the Nile delta in Egypt,
been increasing in recent decades. The global the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta in Bangladesh,
average surface temperature has increased by and many small islands including the Marshall
0.6° + 0.2° C over the last century. Globally, Islands and the Maldives, (WHO, 2001).
1998 was the warmest year and the 1990s the
warmest decade on record. Many countries have Human societies will be seriously affected by
experienced increases in rainfall, particularly in extremes of climate such as droughts and floods.
the countries situated in the mid to high lati- A changing climate would bring about changes
tudes. in the frequency and/or intensity of these ex-
tremes. This is a major concern for human
In some regions, such as parts of Asia and Af- health. To a large extent, public health depends
rica, the frequency and intensity of droughts on safe drinking water, sufficient food, secure
have been observed to increase in recent de- shelter, and good social conditions. All these
cades. Episodes of El Niño, which creates great factors are affected by climate change. Fresh
storms, have been more frequent, persistent and water supplies may be seriously affected, reduc-
intense since mid-1970s compared with the pre- ing the availability of clean water for drinking
vious 100 years. All these are signs that the earth and washing during drought as well as floods.
is sick. Its climate is changing, making it more Water can be contaminated and sewage sys-
difficult for mankind to survive. The earth is los- tems may be damaged. The risk of spread of
ing its ability to balance itself due to the imbal- infectious diseases such as diarrhoeal diseases
ances created by human activities. will increase. Food production will be seriously
reduced in vulnerable regions directly and also
Projections of future climate change are derived indirectly through an increase in pests and plant
from a series of experiments made by computer or animal diseases. The local reduction in food
based global climate models. These are worked production would lead to starvation and mal-
out on estimates of aspects such as future popu- nutrition with long-term health consequences,
lation growth and energy use. Climatologists of especially for children. Food and water short-
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ages may lead to conflicts in vulnerable regions,
(IPCC) have reviewed the results of several ex- with serious implications for public health. Cli-
periments in order to estimate changes in cli- mate change related impacts on human health
mate in the course of this century. These studies could lead to displacement of a large number
have shown that in the near future, the global of people, creating environmental refugees and
mean surface temperature will rise by 1.4° to lead to further health issues.
5.8°C. Warming will be greatest over land ar-
eas, and at high latitudes. The projected rate of Changes in climate may affect the distribution
warming is greater than has occurred in the last of vector species (e.g. mosquitoes) which in turn
10,000 years. The frequency of weather ex- will increase the spread of disease, such as ma-
tremes is likely to increase leading to floods or laria and filariasis, to new areas which lack a
drought. There will be fewer cold spells but more strong public health infrastructure. The seasonal
heat waves. The frequency and intensity of El transmission and distribution of many diseases

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 that are transmitted by mosquitoes (dengue, new and unexpected ones. Strategies aimed at
yellow fever) and by ticks (Lyme disease, tick- reducing potential health impacts of anticipated
borne encephalitis) may spread due to climate climate changes should include monitoring of
change. infectious diseases and disease vectors to de-
tect early changes in the incidence of diseases
and the geographical distribution of vectors; en-
vironmental management measures to reduce
CASE STUDIES risk; disaster preparedness for floods or
droughts; and their health related consequences.
Damage to coral reefs, Pacific It will be necessary to create early warning sys-
tems and education for epidemic preparedness.
The severity of periodic warming due to El Improved water and air pollution control will
Nino in 1997 in the Pacific led to the most become increasingly essential for human health.
serious death in coral ever known. It is esti- Public education will have to be directed at
mated that about 10% of the Earth’s coral changes in personal behaviour. Training of re-
reefs were dead, another 30 % were seri- searchers and health professionals must become
ously affected and another 30% were de- an essential part of the world becoming more
graded. responsible towards the expected outcome of
Global Climate Change (GCC).
The Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network
Townsville, Australia, has predicted that all
the reefs could be dead by 2050. 6.6.2 Global warming:

About 75% of the solar energy reaching the

Butterfly populations in the United King- Earth is absorbed on the earth’s surface which
dom increases its temperature. The rest of the heat
radiates back to the atmosphere. Some of the
Global warming is leading to an early arrival heat is trapped by greenhouse gases, mostly
of butterflies in Britain. Scientists say that but- carbon dioxide. As carbon dioxide is released by
terflies can now be spotted much earlier ev- various human activities, it is rapidly increasing.
ery year in the last two decades. Some, like This is causing global warming.
the red admiral, can now be seen a month
earlier than was the case in the mid – 1970s. The average surface temperature is about 15°C.
Others, like the peacock and the orange tip This is about 33°C higher than it would be in
are appearing between 15 and 25 days ear- the absence of the greenhouse effect. Without
lier than in the past. Future rise in tempera- such gases most of the Earth’s surface would
ture is likely to have a detrimental effect on be frozen with a mean air temperature of -18°C.
these butterflies. Some butterflies which
need cooler temperatures might suffer. Human activities during the last few decades of
industrialisation and population growth have
polluted the atmosphere to the extent that it
has begun to seriously affect the climate. Car-
A Task Group set up by WHO has warned that bon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased by
climate change may have serious impacts on 31% since pre-industrial times, causing more
human health. Climate change will increase vari- heat to be trapped in the lower atmosphere.
ous current health problems, and may also bring There is evidence to show that carbon dioxide

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 levels are still increasing. Many countries have industrial activities account for 61% of sulfur
signed a convention to reduce greenhouse gases dioxide pollution. Motor vehicle exhaust fumes
under the United Nations Convention on Cli- are the main source of nitrogen oxides. The ac-
mate Change. Current international agreements ids in acid rain chemically react with any object
are however not still effective to prevent the they come in contact with. Acids react with other
significant changes in climate and a rise in sea chemicals by giving up hydrogen atoms.
levels.
Effects: Acid rain is known to cause widespread
environmental damage.
Global warming is accelerating faster than
what climatologists had calculated a few 1. Acid rain dissolves and washes away nutri-
years ago. In 1995, the Intergovernmental ents in the soil which are needed by plants.
Panel on Climate Change predict that glo- It can also dissolve naturally occurring toxic
bal warming would rise temperatures by 3.5 substances like aluminium and mercury,
to 10 degrees Centigrade during the 21st freeing them to pollute water or poison
century, if the present trends continue. It is plants.
now believed that this could be much
greater. This would lead to not only tem- 2. Acid rain indirectly affects plants by remov-
perature changes but in the amount of rain- ing nutrients from the soil in which they
fall. India may see great annual fluctuations grow. It affects trees more directly by cre-
in rainfall leading to floods and drought. ating holes in the waxy coating of leaves,
causing brown dead spots which affect the
plant’s photosynthesis. Such trees are also
6.6.3 Acid rain: more vulnerable to insect infestations,
drought and cold. Spruce and fir forests at
When fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural higher elevations seem to be most at risk.
gas are burned, chemicals like sulfur dioxide and Farm crops are less affected by acid rain than
nitrogen oxides are produced. These chemicals forests.
react with water and other chemicals in the air
to form sulfuric acid, nitric acid and other harm- 3. Acid rain that falls or flows as ground wa-
ful pollutants like sulfates and nitrates. These ter to reach rivers, lakes and wetlands,
acid pollutants spread upwards into the atmo- causes the water in them to become acidic.
sphere, and are carried by air currents, to finally This affects plant and animal life in aquatic
return to the ground in the form of acid rain, ecosystems.
fog or snow. The corrosive nature of acid rain
causes many forms of environmental damage. 4. Acid rain also has far reaching effects on
Acid pollutants also occur as dry particles and wildlife. By adversely affecting one species,
gases, which when washed from the ground by the entire food chain is disrupted, ultimately
rain, add to the acids in the rain to form a more endangering the entire ecosystem. Differ-
corrosive solution. This is called acid deposition. ent aquatic species can tolerate different
levels of acidity. For instance clams and
Damage from acid rain is widespread in North mayflies have a high mortality when water
America, Europe, Japan, China and Southeast has a pH of 6.0, while frogs can tolerate
Asia. In the US coal burning power plants con- more acidic water, although with the de-
tribute to about 70% of sulfur dioxide. In cline in supply of mayflies, frog populations
Canada oil refining, metal smelting and other may also decline. Land animals that are de-

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 pendent on aquatic organisms are also af- 6.6.4 Ozone layer depletion:
fected.
Ozone is formed by the action of sunlight on
5. Acid rain and dry acid deposition damages oxygen. It forms a layer 20 to 50kms above the
buildings, automobiles, and other structures surface of the earth. This action takes place
made of stone or metal. The acid corrodes naturally in the atmosphere, but is very slow.
the materials causing extensive damage and Ozone is a highly poisonous gas with a strong
ruins historic buildings. For instance the odour. It is a form of oxygen that has three at-
Parthenon in Greece and the Taj Mahal in oms in each molecule. It is considered a pollut-
India have been affected by acid rain. ant at ground level and constitutes a health
hazard by causing respiratory ailments like
6. Although surface water polluted by acid rain asthma and bronchitis. It also causes harm to
does not directly harm people, the toxic sub- vegetation and leads to a deterioration of cer-
stances leached from soil can pollute water tain materials like plastic and rubber. Ozone in
supply. Fish caught in these waters may be the upper atmosphere however, is vital to all
harmful for human consumption. Acid, life as it protects the earth from the sun’s harm-
along with other chemicals in the air, pro- ful ultraviolet radiation. The ozone layer in the
duces urban smog, which causes respira- upper atmosphere absorbs the sun’s ultraviolet
tory problems. radiation, preventing it from reaching the earth’s
surface.
Solutions: The best way to stop the formation
of acid rain is to reduce the emissions of sulfur This layer in the atmosphere protects life on
dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the atmo- earth from the dangerous UV radiation from the
sphere. This can be achieved by using less en- sun. In the 1970s, scientists discovered that
ergy from fossil fuels in power plants, vehicles chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs,
and industry. Switching to cleaner burning fu- which were used as refrigerants and aerosol
els is also a way out. For instance using natural spray propellants, posed a threat to the ozone
gas which is cleaner than coal, using coal with layer. The CFC molecules are virtually indestruc-
lower sulfur content, and developing more effi- tible until they reach the stratosphere, where
cient vehicles. If the pollutants have already been UV radiation breaks them down to release chlo-
formed by burning fossil fuels, they can be pre- rine atoms. The chlorine atoms react with ozone
vented from entering the atmosphere by using molecules which break down into oxygen mol-
scrubbers in smokestacks in industry. These spray ecules, which do not absorb UV radiations. Since
a mixture of water and limestone into the pol- the early 1980s, scientists detected a thinning
luting gases, recapturing the sulfur. of the ozone layer in the atmosphere above
Antarctica. This phenomenon is now being de-
In catalytic converters, the gases are passed over tected in other places as well including Austra-
metal coated beads that convert harmful chemi- lia. Although the use of CFCs has been reduced
cals into less harmful ones. These are used in and now banned in most countries, other chemi-
cars to reduce the effects of exhaust fumes on cals and industrial compounds such as bromine,
the atmosphere. Once acid rain has affected soil, halocarbons and nitrous oxides from fertilizers
powdered limestone can be added to the soil may also attack the ozone layer.
by a process known as liming to neutralize the
acidity of the soil. The destruction of the ozone layer is seen to
cause increased cases of skin cancer and cata-
racts. It also causes damage to certain crops and

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 to plankton, thus affecting natures food chains
and food webs. This in turn causes an increase CASE STUDY
in carbon dioxide due to the decrease in veg-
etation. Nuclear disasters and leakages

With the signing of the Montreal Protocol in In 1986 the Nuclear Power Station at
1987, a treaty for the protection of the ozone Chernobyl in USSR developed a problem that
layer, the use of CFCs was to be banned by the led to a fire and a number of explosions in
year 2000. After 2000, the ozone layer is ex- its Nuclear Reactor. The radioactive dust
pected to recover slowly over a period of about spread over many kilometers and covered
50 years. not only Europe but North America as well.
Three people died in the explosion and 28
shortly after due to radiation exposure. Some
6.6.5 Nuclear Accidents and Nuclear Holo- 259 sick were hospitalized. As the area had
caust: to be evacuated 1,35,000 people had to be
moved immediately and another 1.5 lac by
Nuclear energy was researched and discovered 1991. As radioactive fall out continued even
by man as a source of alternate energy which more people had to be moved. An estimated
would be clean and cheap compared to fossil 6.5 lakh people may have been seriously af-
fuels. And although this did happen, along with fected. They may get cancer, thyroid
the benefits of nuclear energy came its down- tumours, and cataracts, and suffer from a
falls. In the short history of nuclear energy there lowered immune mechanism.
have been accidents that have surpassed any
natural calamity or other energy source extrac- As radioactivity passes from grass to herbi-
tion in their impacts. A single nuclear accident vores, sheep in Scotland and Reindeer in
can cause loss of life, long-term illness and de- Lapland were affected and were unfit for
struction of property on a large scale for a long human consumption. Vegetable, fruit and
period of time. Radioactivity and radioactive fall- milk were contaminated in Europe.
out leads to cancer, genetic disorders and death
in the affected area for decades after, thus af- A French Nuclear Waste Processing Center
fecting all forms of life for generations to come. in Normandy may have affected the lives of
children playing nearby. They may develop
leukemia (blood cancer) in later life.

Nuclear holocaust:
The use of nuclear energy in war has had dev-
astating effects on man and earth. The
Hiroshima and Nagasaki incident during World
War II, the only use of nuclear power in war in
history, is one of the worst disasters in history.
In 1945, the United States dropped atomic
bombs in Japan over the towns of Hiroshima
and Nagasaki. These two atomic bombs killed
thousands of people, left many thousands in-
jured and devastated everything for miles

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