Dr.

SARATH P
Assistant Professor,
Center for Distance Education and Virtual Learning,
Jain(Deemed-to-be) University, Bengaluru.
 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
 Module-1:
 Nature of personality
 Module 2:
 Psychoanalytical and Neo psychoanalytical Theories
 Module-3:
 Behavioristic and Social Learning Theories
 Module-4:
 Cognitive, Field and Factor Analytical
 Module-5:
 Humanistic, Interpersonal and Limited Domain
Approaches:
Nature of personality
 ORIGINS OF THE TERM
“PERSONALITY”
 The word “personality” originates from the Latin word
persona, which means “mask.”
 The term ‘persona’ was used to indicate the actions of an
individual.
 In the modern world and psychology, it has come to
indicate the sum of an individual’s characteristics and
qualities.
 Definition
 is the unique combination of patterns that influence
behavior, thought, motivation, and emotion in a human
being
 HISTORY OF PERSONALITY
PSYCHOLOGY
 In 370 BCE, Hippocrates
 personality characteristics and human behaviors are based
on four separate temperaments associated with four fluids
(“humors”) of the body.
 Four Humors was medicinal in nature
 Later, the influential Greek physician and philosopher Galen
built on Hippocrates’s theory, suggesting that both diseases
and personality differences could be explained by
imbalances in the humors and that each person exhibits
one of the four temperaments.
 Plato and Aristotle
HISTORY OF PERSONALITY
PSYCHOLOGY
 Sigmund Freud’s psychodynamic perspective of personality
was the first comprehensive theory of personality,
explaining a wide variety of both normal and abnormal
behaviors.
 Other major theories then emerged, including the
 learning,
 humanistic, and
 trait.
 In this module, we will explore these various perspectives
on personality in depth.
 Research traditions
(Research Methodology)
 The Clinical Approach to Personality
 involves the systematic, in-depth study of individuals.
 Sigmund Freud, Henry Murray, Carl Rogers, etc

 The Correlational Approach to Personality

 involves the use of statistical measures to establish the
association, or correlation, between sets of measures on
which individuals have been found to differ
 Cattell, Eysenck etc

 The Experimental Approach to Personality

 involves the systematic manipulation of variables to
establish causal relationships
 Watson, Skinner etc
 philosophical questions about what really
determines personality
 Nature vs. Nurture Debate
 basically relates to the relative importance of an individual’s
inherent traits versus the personal experiences that lead to
individual differences in physical and behavioural traits.
 Freedom versus determinism:
 How much, if any, of an individual’s personality is under their
conscious control?
 Nomothetic Approach versus Idiographic Approach to
Personality
 Nomethetic approaches are based on the tendency to see one’s
personality as constant, hereditary and resistant to change, whereas
the influence of the environment is minimal
 Idiographic Approach- each individual is examined deeply and no
general laws are considered important that are beyond the
individual to be studied
MODULE II
 Freud’s Psychoanalytic
Theory
 Sigmund Freud (1856 to 1939) was an
Austrian neurologist and the founder of
psychoanalysis,
 a clinical method for treating
psychopathology through dialogue
between a patient and a psychoanalyst
 Out of his growing clinical practice, Freud
gradually developed his theories of human
personality and mental illness.
 Freud believed that events in our
childhood have a profound influence on
our adult lives, shaping our personality.
The Levels of Consciousness
 Freud’s original conception divided personality into three levels:.
 Conscious –
 corresponds to its ordinary everyday meaning. It includes all the
sensations and experiences of which we are aware at a given
moment.
 Preconscious –
 This is the storehouse of memories, perceptions, and thoughts of
which we are not consciously aware at the moment but that we can
easily summon into consciousness
 The unconscious,
 that larger, invisible portion below the surface. This is the focus of
psychoanalytic theory. Its vast, dark depths are the home of the
instincts, those wishes and desires that direct our behavior
 Instincts
 It is the basis elements of the personality, the motivating
forces that drives behavior and determine its direction.
 Instincts are a form of energy transformed physiological
energy that connects the body’s need with the minds
wishes.
 With the publication of his book Beyond the Pleasure
Principal in 1920, Freud concluded that all instincts fall
into one of two major classes:
 life instincts
 death instincts.
 Structure of Personality
 Id-
 pleasure principle
 Ego-
 reality principle
 Super ego-
 moral principle
 ANXIETY AND DEFENSE
MECHANISM
 Anxiety: In Freudian theory, unpleasant feelings of tension
or worry experienced by individuals in reaction to
unacceptable wishes or impulses.
 Defense Mechanisms:
 Techniques used by the ego to keep threatening and
unacceptable material out of consciousness, and so to
reduce anxiety.
 we typically defend ourselves against anxiety
 His daughter Anna (1936) developed these ideas and
elaborated on them
Psychosexual Stages of
Development
• Psychosexual Stages of Development:
• According to Freud, an innate sequence of stages
through which all human beings pass.
• Freud believed that personality developed through a
series of childhood stages in which the pleasure-
seeking energies of the id become focused on certain
erogenous areas.
• An erogenous zone is characterized as an area of the
body that is particularly sensitive to stimulation.
Psychosexual Stages
NEO FREUDIAN PSYCHODYNAMIC
APPROACH
 Neo-Freudians:
 Personality theorists who accepted basic portions of
Freud’s theory but rejected or modified other portions
 generally agreed with Freud that childhood experiences
matter, but deemphasized sex
 focusing more on the social environment and effects of
culture on personality.
 Carl Jung

 Karen Horney and

 Alfred Adler

 Erik Erikson
Jung’s Analytical Psychology
 Carl Gustav Jung (1875–1961)
disagreed with Freud about the
nature of the unconscious mind.
 Jung called his new approach
analytical psychology to
differentiate it from Freud’s
psychoanalytic theory
 Jung believed that the unconscious held much more than
personal fears, urges, and memories.
 He believed that there was not only a personal
unconscious, as described by Freud, but a collective
unconscious as well.
 One essential element of the collective unconscious is
the existence of organizing patterns called archetypes.
 Archetypes are images and thoughts which have
universal meanings across cultures which may show up
in dreams, literature, art or religion.
 Jung believes symbols from diverse cultures are often
very similar because they have emerged from
archetypes shared by the whole human race
Alfred Adler (1870–1937)
(Individual psychology)
 Adler (1930, 1961) believed that feelings
of inferiority in childhood are what drive
people to attempt to gain superiority and
that this striving is the force behind all of
our thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.
 Adler also believed in the importance of
social connections, seeing childhood
development emerging through social
development rather than the sexual
stages Freud outlined.
 Adler proposed that inferiority feelings are the source of all
human striving
 According to Adler, the foremost source of human
motivation is a striving for superiority.
 Adler saw striving for superiority as a universal drive to
adapt, improve oneself, and master life’s challenges.
 Alder described his notion of striving for superiority as a
urge toward perfection or completion that motivates each
of us.
Karen Horney (1885-1952)
 Horney’s theories focused on the role of
unconscious anxiety
 In her clinical experience, she identified 10
neurotic needs.
 She suggested that normal growth can be
blocked by basic anxiety stemming from
needs not being met
 How do children learn to handle this anxiety? Horney
suggested three styles of coping
Erik Erikson (1902–94)and
psychosocial stages
 Erik Erikson broke away from Freud’s
emphasis on sex, preferring instead to
emphasize the social relationships that
are important at every stage of life.
 Erikson’s (1959) theory of psychosocial
development has eight distinct stages,
taking in five stages up to the age of 18
years and three further stages beyond,
well into adulthood.
 During each stage, the person
experiences a psychosocial crisis which
could have a positive or negative
outcome for personality development.
Erich Fromm (1900—1980)
 He practiced psychoanalysis as a
disciple of Sigmund Freud but soon
took issue with Freud’s preoccupation
with unconscious drives and
consequent neglect of the role of
societal factors in human psychology.
 For Fromm an individual’s
personality was the product of
culture as well as biology.
 He was known for developing the
concept that freedom was a
fundamental part of human nature.
BEHAVIORISTIC AND SOCIAL LEARNING
THEORIES
Behaviorism/Learning Approaches
 In contrast to the psychodynamic approaches of Freud and the
neo-Freudians, which relate personality to inner (and hidden)
processes, the learning approaches focus only on observable
behavior.
 the behaviorist perspective believes that individuals are born
with a clean slate and all behavior is attained through the
environment.
 states all behaviors are learned through interaction with the
environment.
 The behaviorist movement began in 1913 when John Watson
wrote an article entitled 'Psychology as the behaviorist views
it,' which set out several underlying assumptions regarding
methodology and behavioral analysis.
 Based on Pavlov’s observations, John Watson proposed the
classical conditioning theory to explain all aspects of human
psychology.
Ivan P. Pavlov (1849-1936)
 Ivan Pavlov was a Russian physiologist
best known in psychology for his
discovery of classical conditioning.
 During his studies on the digestive
systems of dogs, Pavlov noted that the
animals salivated naturally upon the
presentation of food.
 However, he also noted that the animals
began to salivate whenever they saw the
white lab coat of an experimental
assistant.
 It was through this observation that
Pavlov discovered that by associating the
presentation of food with the lab
assistant, a conditioned response
occurred.
Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)
 Pavlov conducted an experiment on a dog and measured the amount of
saliva secreted by a dog, with a use of a surgical procedure, when it is
exposed to different stimulus or object.
 At first, when Pavlov presented a piece of meat (US) to the dog, he
noticed a great amount of salivation (UR) whereas, in the second time,
when he just rang the bell, he observed there was no effect of a bell on
the dog’s salivation.
 After this, Pavlov rang the bell accompanied with meat and noticed the
salivation of a dog.
 He repeated this process several times, and finally, one day he just rang
the bell without meat and observed that dog still salivated to the bell
alone which was originally a neutral stimulus.
 Thus, he found out, that the dog has become classically conditioned
(CR) to the sound of the bell (CS). And every time he rings the bell the
dog salivates.
 Thorndike and Skinner
 Despite the evidence that supported classical conditioning,
Thorndike felt as though the theory was too comprehensive
and could not explain most of behavior in the natural
environment.
 Through experimentation, Thorndike developed the Law
of Effect which claims the influence of behavior derives
from the anticipated result.
 Thorndike’s Law of Effect set the basis for Skinner’s
Operant Conditioning Theory.
 Skinner believed that rewards, or positive reinforcement,
for positive behavior increase the likelihood that desired
behavior would continue
Benjamin Franklin Skinner (1904-
1990)
 Earlier behaviorism had been
concerned with stimulus-response
connections.
 Skinner looked at the learning process
in the opposite way, investigating how
learning was affected by stimuli
presented after an act was performed.
 learning is developed through the
rewards and punishments given for a
particular behavior.
 individual tries to establish an
association between a particular
behavior and consequence
Skinner and Operant Conditioning
 B.F. Skinner performed an
experiment; wherein the
Rat was placed in a glass
box, called as a “skinner
box.”
 In that box, there were two
levers, one attached to the
feeding tube, while the
other produced the electric
shock.
 The rat pressed the first lever attached to the tube and got the
food to eat, but as soon as it pressed the other lever, it got the
shock. A rat discovered from its actions, the lever which is
rewarding and the one which gives a shock (negative response)
and pressed only that lever which resulted in food.
 Thus, Skinner observed, that the rate of response, as well as the
change in the response, was seen after the behavior was
performed, not before.
 Operant conditioning, also known as instrumental conditioning,
is a method of learning normally attributed to B.F. Skinner,
where the consequences of a response determine the probability
of it being repeated.
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORIES
 The social learning theorists observed that the complexity
of human behavior cannot easily be explained by
traditional behavioral theories.
 Social learning theorists do not deny the influence of
reinforcement and punishment, but rather, they suggest
that it can be experienced through observation
 Bandura recognized that people learn a great deal from
watching other people and seeing the rewards and/or
punishments that other people receive.
 Social learning is also commonly referred to as
observational learning, because it comes about because
of observing models
Alfred Bandura (1925 - 2021)
 Alfred Bandura believed that much of
our learning, and consequently many
aspects of behavior and personality,
takes place through observing the
behavior of others and using
observational behavior for modelling.
 According to Bandura, learning
involves not only connections
between stimuli and responses but
also cognitive representation and
rearrangement.
 He is well known for his “Bobo Doll
experiment”
Module-4: Cognitive, Field and Factor Analytical
GENERAL COMPONENTS OF
COGNITIVE PERSONALITY THEORIES
 Cognitive theories of personality focus on the processes of
information encoding and retrieval, and the role of
expectations, goals, and beliefs in the development of
stable personality characteristics.
 Most cognitive theories of personality focus on the ways in
which personal knowledge and judgment are developed.
 Cognitive personality theorists have focused their efforts
on describing the development of cognitions that explain
the world and the individual’s concept of self in it, and they
have also developed some understanding of variations in
cognitive styles that predict individual differences.
KELLY’S THEORY OF PERSONAL
CONSTRUCTS
 He wrote that Freud’s theory was not only unbelievable but
went as far as to call it ‘nonsense.’
 He referred to behavioral theory as a bunch of confusing
arrows, R’s and S’s.
 In contrast to these theories, Kelly saw individual
differences because of how we interpret and predict the
events that affect us.
 He called these
 personal constructs
 personal constructs
 referring to our individual way of gathering information
from the world and developing hypotheses based on
these interpretations
 Kelly proposed that people use observations to develop
beliefs about themselves and their world. These
observations are organized into personal constructs.
 Kelly proposed that people make predictions and
interpretations regarding their experience based on their
personal constructs (or schemata), and they endeavor to
behave in a manner that is consistent with their personal
constructs.
BANDURA’S SOCIAL COGNITIVE
THEORY
 Albert Bandura agreed with Skinner that personality
develops through learning.
 He disagreed, however, with Skinner’s strict behaviorist
approach to personality development, because he felt that
thinking and reasoning are important components of
learning.
 He presented a social-cognitive theory of personality
that emphasizes both learning and cognition as sources of
individual differences in personality.
 In social-cognitive theory, the concepts of, observational
learning ,reciprocal determinism, and self-efficacy all play
a part in personality development.
 Bobo doll experiment and
observational learning
 During the 1960s, Albert Bandura conducted a series
of experiments on observational learning, collectively
known as the Bobo doll experiments.
Bobo doll experiment and
observational learning
 Conclusion
 Bobo doll experiment demonstrated that children are
able to learn social behavior such as aggression
through the process of observation learning, through
watching the behavior of another person.
BANDURA’S SOCIAL COGNITIVE
THEORY
 Despite the potential influence of models, the entire
process of observational learning in a social learning
environment would probably not be successful if not for
four important component processes (Bandura, 1977,
1986):
 attentional processes,
 retention processes,
 production (or reproduction) processes, and
 motivational processes
 Reciprocal determinism
 In contrast to Skinner’s idea that the environment alone
determines behavior, Bandura (1990) proposed the concept
of reciprocal determinism, in which cognitive processes,
behavior, and context all interact, each factor influencing
and being influenced by the others simultaneously
 Self-efficacy
 Bandura expanded cognitive personality theory by
describing role of belief structures such as self-efficacy.
 Self-efficacy
 is a person’s beliefs regarding what should be done to
achieve a desired goal, and the person’s beliefs regarding
his or her ability to perform those actions.
 is our level of confidence in our own abilities, developed
through our social experiences.
 Self-efficacy affects how we approach challenges and reach
goals.
JULIAN ROTTER AND LOCUS OF
CONTROL
 Individuals differ to the extent that they generally
believe their own actions are related to personal
outcomes
 The major contribution of his theory to the psychology
of personality was the proposal of a generalized
cognitive expectancy that Rotter called locus of
control.
 Locus of control
 is an individual’s belief system regarding the causes of
his or her experiences and the factors to which that
person attributes success or failure.
 This concept is usually divided into two categories:
 internal and external.
 If a person has an internal locus of control,
 that person attributes success to his or her own efforts
and abilities.
 Those with an external locus of control
 generally believe that success or failure is determined by
fate, chance, or the will of others.
 Distinct from self-efficacy, which involves our belief in our
own abilities, locus of control refers to our beliefs about
the power we have over our lives.
WALTER MISCHEL’S COGNITIVE-
AFFECTIVE PERSONALITY SYSTEM
 In recent years, Mischel and colleague Yuichi Shoda have
made progress in describing dynamic interactions of
situations with personal variables (self-efficacy beliefs,
personal goals, and emotional reactions) into an integrated
theory called the cognitive-affective personality system.
 This approach recognizes that persons differ in the
aspects of a situation on which they focus and in the way
in which they encode an element of a situation. The
resulting theory emphasizes the interaction of situations,
encoding processes, memories, beliefs, expectancies, and
behavior in a reciprocally determinative dynamic.
Kurt Lewin and his Field Theory
 Kurt Lewin was an influential psychologist who is
today recognized as the founder of modern social
psychology.
 Influenced by Gestalt psychology, Lewin developed a
theory that emphasized the importance of individual
personalities, interpersonal conflict, and situational
variables.
 Lewin's Field Theory proposed that behavior is the
result of the individual and the environment.
 Lewin gave the classic psychological formula in his work
on Field theory, in which he has proposed his theory of
personality:
 B = f(p,e) ( read as, ‘behaviour is a function of the person and his
environment’)
 indicating that a person’s behaviour is contingent on himself as
well as the environment influencing him.
 In relation to this, Kurt Lewin gives the concept of ‘life-space’ in
his theory of personality. At any given time, a person’s actions are
determined by a combination of factors around him
 When the person and environment come together, a dynamic
field is created that causes the person to behave in a particular
way. That is why, Lewin’s theory is called the dynamic theory of
personality.
TRAIT THEORIES OF
PERSONALITIES
 Trait theorists believe personality can be understood by
positing that all people have certain traits, or characteristic
ways of behaving
 A personality trait
 is a durable disposition to behave in a particular way in a
variety of situations.
 Adjectives such as honest, dependable, moody, impulsive,
suspicious, anxious, excitable, domineering, and friendly
describe dispositions that represent personality traits.
Gordon Allport (1897–1967)
 One of the first efforts to identify
key human traits—the work of
Gordon Allport.
 Allport and his colleague H. S.
Odbert literally scanned the
dictionary for words that could be
traits, finding about 18,000, then
paring that down to 171 traits after
eliminating synonyms
 Allport organized these traits into a hierarchy of three
levels:
 CARDINAL TRAIT-
 Cardinal traits are powerful, but not to be observed in
many people
 CENTRAL TRAIT-
 These are general characteristics found in varying degrees
in every person (such as loyalty, kindness, agreeableness,
friendliness, etc)
 SECONDARY TRAIT-
 They are plentiful but are only present under specific
circumstances; they include things like preferences and
attitudes
Raymond Cattell (1905–1998)
 Another, and in some ways more
sophisticated, trait theory was
proposed by Raymond Cattell
 To make Allport’s list of 4,500 traits
more manageable, Raymond Cattell
took the list and removed all the
synonyms, reducing the number
down to 171.
 Cattell performed factor analysis to generated sixteen
dimensions of human personality traits
 Based on these 16 factors, he developed a personality
assessment called the 16PF
Hans Eysenck (1916-1997)
 focused on temperament—innate,
genetically based personality
differences.
 He believed personality is largely
governed by biology
The PEN model
 viewed people as having two specific personality
dimensions:
 extroversion vs. introversion
 neuroticism vs. stability.
 Later, he added a third dimension to this model:
 psychoticism vs. socialization.
THE FIVE-FACTOR MODEL
 Many psychologists believe that the total number of
personality traits can be reduced to five factors
 all other personality traits fitting within these five
factors.
 Paul Costa’s and Robert McCrae’s version, however, is
the most well-known today.
 The acronym OCEAN is often used to recall Costa’s and
McCrae’s five factors, or the Big Five personality traits
 Openness to Experience:
 the tendency to be imaginative, independent, and interested in
variety vs. practical, conforming, and interested in routine.
 Conscientiousness:
 the tendency to be organized, careful, and disciplined vs.
disorganized, careless, and impulsive.
 Extraversion:
 the tendency to be sociable, fun-loving, and affectionate vs.
retiring, somber, and reserved.
 Agreeableness:
 the tendency to be soft-hearted, trusting, and helpful vs.
ruthless, suspicious, and uncooperative.
 Neuroticism:
 the tendency to be calm, secure, and self-satisfied vs. anxious,
insecure, and self-pitying.
Guilford’s Trait Theory
 J.P. Guilford is another important psychologist who have
tried to analyse and predict about personality on the basis
of traits.
 Guilford defines personality as an individual’s unique
pattern traits. Guilford, like Allport, stresses the
integration of traits when he discusses the individual’s
pattern of traits.
 Guilford groups traits into seven modalities or classes.
These modalities or traits are as follows: interest, attitude,
needs, temperament, aptitude, morphology or the body
structure, and physiology (basic bodily functions).
HUMANISTIC, INTERPERSONAL AND LIMITED
DOMAIN APPROACHES
HUMANISTIC APPROACHES
 Humanists do not believe that human beings are pushed
and pulled by mechanical forces,
 either of stimuli and reinforcements (behaviorism) or
 of unconscious instinctual impulses (psychoanalysis).
 The main aim of humanistic approach is to provide
concepts and methods for stimulating learning, growth
and development both in individual persons as well as in
society, thus enhancing well-being and the overall quality
of life
 Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow
 Carl Rogers
 He is best known for developing the
psychotherapy method called
client-centered therapy and for
being one of the founders of
humanistic psychology.
 Rogers suggested that they are
people who strive to experience life
to the fullest, who live in the here
and now, and who trust their own
feelings
CARL ROGERS
 Rogers talked about healthy development in terms of how
individuals perceived their own being.
 Healthy individuals will tend to see congruence between
 their sense of who they are (self) and
 who they feel they should be (ideal self).
 While no one tends to experience perfect congruence
always, the relative degree of congruence is an indicator of
health.
 Through a process Rogers called personcentered
therapy/ client-centered therapy; the therapist seeks to
provide empathy, openness, and unconditional positive
regard.
 Rogers called his technique nondirective therapy, based on
the concept that the therapist is simply a “mirror” who
reflects the individual’s thoughts and feelings.
Abraham Maslow
 As a leader of humanistic psychology,
Abraham Maslow approached the study
of personality psychology by focusing
on subjective experiences and free will.
 He was mainly concerned with an
individual’s innate drive toward self-
actualization—a state of fulfillment in
which a person is achieving at his or her
highest level of capability.
 Maslow proposed a theory of human
motivation based on hierarchy of needs
Abraham Maslow
 Maslow believed that successful fulfillment of each layer of
needs was vital in the development of personality.
 The highest need for self-actualization represents the
achievement of our fullest potential, and those individuals
who finally achieved self-actualization were said to
represent optimal psychological health and functioning.
 The lower a need in the hierarchy the more prepotent or
dominating that need is. In other words, when several
needs are active, the lowest need will be most compelling.
The higher order needs emerge only when the lower level
needs are satisfied
Harry Stack Sullivan- Interpersonal
Theory
 interpersonal theory
 bsed on the belief that people’s interactions with other
people, especially significant others, determine their
sense of security, sense of self, and the dynamisms that
motivate their behavior.
 For Sullivan, personality is the product of a long series of
stages in which the individual gradually develops “good
feeling” toward others and a sense of a good me toward
himself or herself.
Marvin Zuckerman
 Marvin Zuckerman is a leading expert in the social and
biological bases of personality.
 His work on sensation seeking, and his relationship with
Eysenck, have led Zuckerman to become one of today’s leading
proponents of the biological basis of personality
 Marvin Zuckerman represents the current approach taken by
many psychologists who study traits. He developed an interest
in one particular trait, and he has studied that trait in great
detail. He called it sensation seeking, and in order to study it
carefully, he also developed the Sensation Seeking Scale.
 Sensation seeking is described as a personality trait construct
that is defined by the search for feelings and experiences that are
"varied, novel, complex and intense."
Martin Seligman
 Seligman is a strong promoter within the scientific
community of his theories of positive psychology and
of well-being
Transactional Analysis - Eric Berne
 Transactional Analysis (TA) is is a psychoanalytic theory
and method of therapy, developed by Eric Berne during the
1950s. Transactions refer to the communication exchanges
between people.
 During a conversation with someone, the person starting
the communication will give the ‘transaction stimulus’ and
then the person receiving this stimulus (or message of
communication) will give the ‘transaction response’.
 Berne believed that our childhood experiences, particularly
how we are parented, effects the developmental formation
of our three ego states (Parent, Adult and Child).
 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
 Module-1:
 Nature of personality
 Module 2:
 Psychoanalytical and Neo psychoanalytical Theories
 Module-3:
 Behavioristic and Social Learning Theories
 Module-4:
 Cognitive, Field and Factor Analytical
 Module-5:
 Humanistic, Interpersonal and Limited Domain
Approaches:
References (BOOKS)
 Hall, Calvin S., Lindzey G & Campbell J.B(1998)
Theories of Personality(4), John Wiley & sons, NY
 Robert A Baron (2001) Psychology, Vth Edition,
Prentice Hall Publications.
 Saundra K Ciccarelli and Glenn E Meyer, Psychology,
South Asian Edition, Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt.
Ltd., Licensees of Pearson Education in south Asia