UNIT-II

Special-Purpose Diodes: Zener Diodes, Zener Diode Applications, Varactor Diodes, Optical Diodes

VARACTOR DIODE
The junction capacitance of diodes varies with the amount of reverse bias. Varactor diodes are specially designed
to take advantage of this characteristic and are used as voltage-controlled capacitors rather than traditional diodes.
These devices are commonly used in communication systems. Varactor diodes are also referred to as varicaps or
tuning diodes.

A varactor is a diode that always operates in reverse bias and is doped to maximize the inherent capacitance of
the depletion region. The depletion region acts as a capacitor dielectric because of its nonconductive
characteristic. The p and n regions are conductive and act as the capacitor plates.

pBasic Operation
Recall that capacitance is determined by the parameters of plate area (A),
dielectric constant (ε), and plate separation (d), as expressed in the

following formula:
As the reverse-bias voltage increases, the depletion region widens,
effectively increasing the plate separation, thus decreasing the capacitance.
When the reverse-bias voltage decreases, the depletion region narrows,
thus increasing the capacitance. For this particular device, CT varies from 30 pF to slightly less than 4 pF as VR
varies from 1 V to 30 V. In a varactor diode, these capacitance parameters are controlled by the method of doping
near the pn junction and the size and geometry of the diode’s construction. Nominal varactor capacitances are
typically available from a few pico farads to several hundred pico farads.

The symbol of a varactor diode is shown in the below figure. The circuit symbol of the varactor diode is almost
similar to the normal p-n junction diode.
Two parallel lines at the cathode side represents two
conductive plates and the space between these two parallel
lines represents dielectric.

Construction of varactor diode:

 The n-type semiconductor, a large number of free electrons are present and in the p-type semiconductor, a
large number of holes are present.
 The free electrons and holes always try to move from a higher concentration region to a lower concentration
region.
 For free electrons, n-region is the higher concentration region and p-region is the lower concentration region.
For holes, p-region is the higher concentration region and n-region is the lower concentration region.
Therefore, the free electrons always try to move from n-region to p-region similarly holes always try to move
from p-region to n-region.
 When no voltage is applied, a large number of free electrons in the n-region get repelled from each other and
move towards the p-region.
 When the free electrons reach p-n junction, they experience an attractive force from the holes in the p-region.
 As a result, the free electrons cross the p-n junction. In the similar way, holes also cross the p-n junction.
Because of the flow of these charge carriers, a tiny current flows across diode for some period.
 During this process, some neutral atoms near
the junction at n-side loses electrons and
become positively charged atoms (positive
ions) similarly some neutral atoms near the
junction at p-side gains extra electrons and
become negatively charged atoms (negative
ions). These positive and negative ions created
at the p-n junction is nothing but depletion
region.
This depletion region prevents further current flow across the p-n junction. The width of depletion region depends
on the number of impurities added (amount of doping). A heavily doped varactor diode has a thin depletion layer
whereas a lightly doped varactor diode has a wide depletion layer.

 An insulator or a dielectric does not allow

electric current through it. The depletion
region also does not allow electric current
through it.
 So the depletion region acts like a
dielectric of a capacitor. Electrodes or
conductive plates easily allow electric
current through them. The p-type and n-
type semiconductor also easily allow
electric current through them.
 So the p-type and n-type semiconductor
acts like the electrodes or conductive
plates of the capacitor.
 Thus, varactor diode behaves like a normal
 In an unbiased varactor diode, the depletion width is very small.capacitor.
So the capacitance (charge storage) is very
large. The varactor diode should always be operated in reverse bias. Because in reverse bias, the electric current
does not flow.
 When a forward bias voltage is applied, the electric current flows through the diode. As a result, the depletion
region becomes negligible. Depletion region consists of stored charges. So stored charges becomes negligible
which is undesirable.
 A varactor diode is designed to store electric charge not to conduct electric current. So varactor diode should
always be operated in reverse bias.
 When a reverse bias voltage is applied, the electrons from n-region and holes from pregion moves away from
the junction. As a result, the width of depletion region increases and the capacitance decreases.
 However, if the applied reverse bias voltage is
very low the capacitance will be very large.
 The capacitance is inversely proportional to the
width of the depletion region and directly
proportional to the surface area of the p-region
and n-region.
 So the capacitance decreases as the as the width
of depletion region increases.
 If the reverse bias voltage is increased, the
width of depletion region further increases
and the capacitance further decreases.
 On the other hand, if the reverse bias voltage is
reduced, the width of depletion region
decreases and the capacitance increases.
  Thus, an increase in reverse bias voltage increases
the width of the depletion region and decreases the
capacitance of a varactor diode. The decrease in
capacitance means the decrease in storage charge.
 So the reverse bias voltage should be kept at a
minimum to achieve large storage charge. Thus,
capacitance or transition capacitance can be varied
by varying the voltage.
 In a fixed capacitor, the capacitance will not be
varied whereas, in variable capacitor, the capacitance
is varied.

Applications
Because of large range of capacitance variation these
diodes are used in Some of the high frequency areas
like
1.frequency modulation
2.Tuning TV and FM radio Advantages of VVC over other variable capacitors
3.in Automatic-frequency control circuits 1.Smaller in size
4.in Adjustable band pass filters 2.Rugged and reliable
5.in Parametric amplifiers. 3.No movable part
6.RF phase shifter 4.Operate over wide range of frequencies
7.Variable Tank circuits 5.It has very fast response Electrical tuning

BREAKDOWN Mechanism of a PN junction Diode

In a semiconductor diode, the term breakdown implies the short circuit of the diode. As we know, the diode
allows the flow of electric current in only one direction (forward direction) and blocks the flow of current in the
reverse direction. But, when the applied voltage in the reverse direction exceeds a limit (called breakdown
voltage), the diode starts conducting in the reverse direction as well. This stage is called the breakdown in the
diode.
The following two types of breakdowns take place in a PN-junction semiconductor diode −

 Zener Breakdown
 Avalanche Breakdown

Zener Breakdown
The breakdown of PN junction in a semiconductor diode which occurs due to the flow of free electrons across
the junction is called Zener breakdown. The Zener breakdown mainly occurs in the heavy doped diodes that
have a thin depletion region.
When a high electric field is applied across the PN junction in reverse direction, the charge carriers start flowing
across the junction. As a result of it, a heavy current flows in the reverse direction through the diode. The Zener
breakdown is temporary breakdown of the PN junction in the diode, which does not destroy the diode. Therefore,
once the reverse voltage is removed, the PN junction regains its original state.
The value of reverse voltage at which the Zener breakdown in the PN junction diode takes place is called
the Zener voltage. The Zener breakdown takes place in highly doped PN junction diodes.
Avalanche Breakdown
The type of PN junction breakdown in which the applied electric field in the reverse direction across the diode
increases the velocity of charge carriers and these charge carriers create a large number of hole-electron pairs by
colliding with the atoms of the semiconductor materials is called the avalanche breakdown.
In case avalanche breakdown, the production of hole-electron pairs is continuous which causes an avalanche of
free charge carries. The flow of free charge carriers across the junction results a high reverse current in the diode
which permanently destroys the PN junction.
The applied reverse voltage at which the avalanche breakdown occurs is called avalanche breakdown voltage.
The avalanche breakdown mainly occurs in such PN junction diodes that have thick depletion region. The
avalanche breakdown in the diode is permanent, i.e. it cannot regain its original state.

Comparision between Zener and Avalanche breakdown:

Basis of Zener Breakdown Avalanche Breakdown
Difference

Definition The breakdown in a PN junction The breakdown in a PN junction diode that

diode occurs due to the tunneling occurs due to impact ionization, i.e. increase in
effect (or field ionization) is known the number of free electrons flowing in the
as Zener breakdown. reverse direction is called avalanche breakdown.

Breakdown The reverse voltage at which the The reverse voltage at which avalanche
voltage (In reverse Zener breakdown occurs is called breakdown takes place is called avalanche
direction) Zener voltage. It is denoted by breakdown voltage. The value of avalanche
VZ and its value typically varies from breakdown voltage is usually more than 8 volts,
5 to 8 volts. which is always greater than Zener voltage.

Depletion region The Zener breakdown occurs in the Avalanche breakdown occurs in such PN
PN junction diodes having junction diodes that have thick depletion region.
comparatively thin depletion region.

Destruction of The Zener breakdown does destroy The avalanche breakdown permanently destroys
junction the PN junction of the diode. the PN junction of the diode.

Electric field In the Zener breakdown, the electric In case of avalanche breakdown, the electric
field across the junction is strong. field across the junction is relatively weak.

Doping level Zener breakdown occurs in heavily Avalanche breakdown can occur in the diode
doped PN junction diodes. having any level of doping.
 Reverse voltage Zener breakdown takes place at Avalanche breakdown occurs at a reverse
relatively lower reverse voltage. voltage more than Zener voltage.

Ionization In case of Zener breakdown, the In case of avalanche breakdown, the ionization is
ionization is due to electric field. due to collision between charge carries and
atoms.

Relation between The Zener breakdown voltage is The avalanche breakdown voltage is directly
breakdown voltage inversely proportional to the proportional to the temperature.
& temperature temperature.

Change in voltage In case of Zener breakdown, once the The voltage across the diode may vary even after
after breakdown breakdown occurs, the reverse the occurrence of avalanche breakdown.
voltage across the diode becomes
constant.

Temperature Zener breakdown has a negative Avalanche breakdown has a positive temperature
coefficient of temperature coefficient of voltage, coefficient of voltage, which means the
voltage i.e. Zener voltage decreases with the avalanche breakdown voltage increases when the
increase in temperature. temperature decreases.

Charge carriers Zener breakdown generates Avalanche breakdown generates holeelectrons

electrons. pairs.

Effect on junction In case of Zener breakdown, the PN In case of avalanche breakdown, the PN junction
junction regains its original state. does not regain its original state.

PARAMETERS ZENER BREAKDOWN AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN

Basic Definition It occurs when the electric field is created It occurs when high velocity electrons
due to high reverese voltage. collide with bounded electrons.
Reverse Voltage Less than 5 V More than 5 V
Range
Doping density High Doping density Low doping density

Temperature Exhibit Negative temperature coefficient Exhibit Positive temperature coefficient

Coefficient
Nature of V-I Very Sharp Not as sharp as Zener Breakdown
Characteristics
Mechanism Due to collision between electrons Due to High electric field

ZENER DIODE:
 Zener diode is a special type of device designed to operate in the zener breakdown region (reverse
breakdown region).
 Zener diode If the diode is heavily doped, zener breakdown occurs at low reverse voltages. On the other
hand, if the diode is lightly doped, the zener breakdown occurs at high reverse voltages.
 Zener diodes are available with zener voltages in the range of 1.8V to 400V.
 Zener diode is heavily doped than the normal p-n junction diode. Hence, it has very thin depletion region.
Therefore, it allows more electric current than the normal p-n junction diodes.
  Zener diode allows electric current in forward direction like a normal diode but also allows electric current
in the reverse direction if the applied reverse voltage is greater than the zener voltage.
 So, it is always connected in reverse direction because it is specifically designed to work under reverse
bias. Zener diodes are the basic building blocks of electronic circuits and widely used in all kinds of
electronic equipments to protect electronic circuits from over voltage.
Symbol of zener diode
Breakdown in zener diode There are two types of reverse breakdown
regions in a zener diode:
i) Avalanche breakdown ii) Zener breakdown.

Avalanche breakdown:
The avalanche breakdown occurs in both normal
diodes and zener diodes at high reverse voltage.
When high reverse voltage is applied to the p-n
junction diode, the free electrons gains large
amount of energy and accelerated to greater
velocities. The free electrons moving at high
speed will collides with the atoms and knock off
more electrons. These electrons are again
accelerated and collide with other atoms.
Because of this continuous collision with the
atoms, a large number of free electrons are
generated. As a result, electric current in the
diode increases rapidly. This sudden increase in
electric current may permanently destroys the
normal diode.
However, avalanche diodes may not be destroyed because they are carefully designed to operate in avalanche
breakdown region. Avalanche breakdown occurs in zener diodes with zener voltage (Vz ) greater than 6V.
Zener breakdown: The zener breakdown occurs in
heavily doped p-n junction diodes because of their
narrow depletion region. When reverse biased
voltage applied to the diode is increased, the narrow
depletion region generates strong electric field.
When reverse biased voltage applied to the diode
reaches close to zener voltage, the electric field in
the depletion region is strong enough to pull
electrons from their valence band.
The valence electrons which gains sufficient energy
from the strong electric field of depletion region
will breaks bonding with the parent atom and
become free electrons. This free electrons carry
electric current from one place to another place. At
zener breakdown region, a small increase in voltage
will rapidly increases the electric current.
Characteristics of Zener diode:
the reverse portion of a zener diode’s characteristic curve. Notice that as the reverse voltage (VR) is
increased, the reverse current (IR) remains extremely small up to the “knee” of the curve. The reverse current is
also called the zener current, IZ. At this point, the breakdown effect begins; the internal zener resistance, also
called zener impedance (ZZ), begins to decrease as the reverse current increases rapidly. From the bottom of the
knee, the zener breakdown voltage (VZ) remains essentially constant although it increases slightly as the zener
current, IZ, increases.
 Zener Diode Applications
1. Zener Regulation
i) Zener Regulation with a Variable Input
Voltage:
The zener diode can be used as a type of voltage
regulator for providing stable reference voltages.
The ability to keep reverse voltage constant across
its terminal is the key feature of the zener diode. It
maintains constant voltage over a range of reverse
current values. A minimum reverse current I ZK must
be maintained in order to keep diode in regulation
mode. Voltage decreases drastically if the current is
reduced below the knee of the curve. Above I , max
current, the zener may get damaged permanently.
To illustrate regulation, let us use the ideal
model of the 1N4740A zener diode (ignoring
the zener resistance) in the circuit of Figure 6.
• Ideal model of IN4047A
• IZK = 0.25mA • VZ = 10V • PD(max) = 1W

For the minimum zener current, the voltage across the

220Ω resistor is
VR = IZKR = (0.25 mA)(220Ω) = 55mV,
Since VIN =VR+VZ,
VIN(min) = VR + VZ = 55mV+10V= 10.055V For the
maximum zener current, the voltage across the 220Ω
resistor is
VR = IZMR = (100 mA)(220Ω) = 22V
Therefore, VIN(max) = 22V+ 10V = 32V This shows
that this zener diode can ideally regulate an input
voltage from 10.055 to 32V and maintain an
approximate 10V output.
Fig: Zener regulation of a varying input voltage.
ii) Zener Regulation with variable load:
Figure 7 shows a zener voltage regulator with a variable load resistor across the terminals. The zener diode
maintains a nearly constant voltage across RL as long as the zener current is greater than IZK and less than IZM.
When RL=∞ (open cct), load current is zero and all of the
current pass through zener diode. When RL is connected,
current is divided between zener diode and RL. The total
current through R remains constant as long as the zener is
regulating. As RL decreases, IL increase and IZ decreases.
The zener continues to regulate the voltage until I Z
reaches its minimum value. Now, the load current is
maximum, and a full-load condition exists.
Example: Determine the minimum and the maximum load currents for which the zener diode in Figure 8 will
maintain regulation. What is the minimum value of RL that can be used? VZ=12V, IZK=1mA, and IZM =50mA.
Assume an ideal zener diode where Z Z=0Ω and VZ remains a constant 12V over the range of current values.
Solution When IL=0, (RL=∞), IZ=Izmax=IT
IZ(max)=IT=VIN−VZR=24−12470=25.5mA
This value is less than 50mA, RL can be removed
without disturbing regulation.
IL(min) = 0A
IL(max) occurs when IZ is minimum
(IZ = IZK) IL(max) = IT − Iz(min)= 25.5mA −1mA = 24.5mA
Minimum value of RL is RL(min)=VZ x IL(max)
=12V x 24.5mA = 𝟒𝟗𝟎𝛀
Regulation is maintained for any value of RL between
490 Ω and infinity.
2. Zener Limiter:
Zener diodes can be used as limiters. Figure 9 shows three basic ways the limiting action of a zener diode can be
used. During the negative alternation, the zener acts as a forward-biased diode and limits the negative voltage to-
0.7V as in part (A). When the zener is turned around, as in part (b), the negative peak is limited by zener action
and the positive voltage is limited to +0.7V. Two back-to-back zeners limit both peaks to the zener voltage ±
0.7V as shown in part (c).

Fig: Basic zener limiting action with a sinusoidal input voltage.

 Optical Diodes
In this section, three types of optoelectronic devices are introduced: the light-emitting diode, quantum dots, and
the photodiode.
The Light-Emitting Diode (LED):
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs), diodes can be made to emit light electroluminescence or sense light. When the
device is forward-biased, electrons cross the pn junction from the n-type material and recombine with holes in
the p-type material. The free electrons are in the conduction band and at a higher energy than the holes in the
valence band. The difference in energy between the electrons and the holes corresponds to the energy of visible
light. When recombination takes place, the recombining electrons release energy in the form of photons. The
emitted light tends to be monochromatic (one color) that depends on the band gap (and other factors). A large
exposed surface area on one layer of the semiconductive material permits the photons to be emitted as visible
light. This process, called electroluminescence, is vary widely in size and brightness–from small indicating lights
and displays to high-intensity LEDs that are used in traffic signals, outdoor signs, and general illumination.
Various impurities are added during
the doping process to establish the wavelength (λ) of the
emitted light. The wavelength determines
the color of visible light. Some LEDs emit photons that are
not part of the visible
spectrum but have longer wavelengths and are in the
infrared (IR) portion of the spectrum.
LED Semiconductor Materials The semiconductor gallium
arsenide (GaAs) was used in early LEDs and emits IR
radiation, which is invisible.
 The first visible red LEDs were produced using gallium
arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) on a GaAs substrate. The
efficiency was increased using a gallium phosphide
(GaP) substrate, resulting in brighter red LEDs, also
allowing orange LEDs.
 GaP was used as the light-emitter to achieve pale green
light. By using a red anda green chip, LEDs were able to
produce yellow light.
 The first super-bright red, yellow, and green LEDs were
produced using gallium aluminum arsenide phosphide
(GaAlAsP).
By the early 1990s ultrabright LEDs using indium gallium
aluminum phosphide (InGaAlP) were available in red,
orange, yellow, and green.
Blue LEDs using silicon carbide (SiC) and ultrabright blue
LEDs made of gallium nitride (GaN) became available.
High intensity LEDs that produce green and blue are also
made using indium gallium nitride (InGaN). The LED emits light in response to a
High-intensity white LEDs are formed using ultra bright sufficient forward current.
blue GaN coated with fluorescent phosphors that absorb the The amount of power output translated
blue light and reemit it as white light. into light is directly proportional to the
forward current.
LED Biasing The forward voltage across an LED is An increase in IF corresponds
considerably greater than for a silicon diode. Typically, the proportionally to an increase in light
maximum VF for LEDs is between 1.2 V and 3.2 V, output. The light output (both intensity and
depending on the material. Reverse breakdown for an LED color) is also dependent on temperature.
is much less than for a silicon rectifier diode (3 V to 10 V is
typical). Light intensity goes down with higher
temperature as indicated in the figure.
Light Emission An LED emits light over a specified range of wavelengths as indicated by the spectral output
curves in Figure 3–31. The curves in part (a) represent the light output versus wavelength for typical visible
LEDs, and the curve in part (b) is for a typical infrared LED. The wavelength is expressed in nanometers (nm).
The normalized output of the visible red LED peaks at 660 nm, the yellow at 590 nm, green at 540 nm, and blue
at 460 nm. The output for the infrared LED peaks at 940 nm.

Advantages of LED: The brightness of light emitted by LED is depends on the current flowing through the
LED. Hence, the brightness of LED can be easily controlled by varying the current. This makes possible to
operate LED displays under different ambient lighting conditions.
 Light emitting diodes consume low energy.
 LEDs are very cheap and readily available.
 LEDs are light in weight.Smaller size.
 LEDs have longer lifetime.
 LEDs operates very fast.
 They can be turned on and off in very less time.
 LEDs do not contain toxic material like mercury which is used in fluoro-lamps.
 LEDs can emit different colors of light.
Disadvantages of LED: LEDs need more power to operate than normal p-n junction diodes.
Luminous efficiency of LEDs is low.
Applications of LED The various applications of LEDs are as follows
 Burglar alarms systems Calculators Multimeters Camera flashes
 Aviation lighting Digital computers Microprocessors Digital watches
 Picture phones Traffic signals Automotive heat lamps
The Organic LED (OLED):

An OLED is a device that consists of two or three layers of materials composed of organic molecules or
polymers that emit light with the application of voltage. OLEDs produce light through the process of electro
phosphorescence. The color of the light depends on the type of organic molecule in the emissive layer.
Electrons are provided to the emissive layer and removed
from the conductive layer when
there is current between the cathode and anode. This
removal of electrons from the conductive
layer leaves holes. The electrons from the emissive layer
recombine with the holes
from the conductive layer near the junction of the two
layers. When this recombination occurs, energy is released
in the form of light that passes through the transparent
cathode material. If the anode and substrate are also made
from transparent materials, light is emitted in both
directions, making the OLED useful in applications such as
heads-up displays.

OLEDs can be sprayed onto substrates just like inks are sprayed onto paper during printing. Inkjet technology
greatly reduces the cost of OLED manufacturing and allows OLEDs to be printed onto very large films for large
displays like 80-inch TV screens or electronic billboards.
Features of OLED Technology OLED Technology Advantages
 Flexibility.  Thinner, lighter and more flexible.
 Emissive Technology.  Do not require backlighting like LCDs.
 Lightweight and thin.  Can be made to larger sizes.
 Low power consumption.  Large fields of view, about 170 degrees.
 High contrast, brighter and perfect display from  Faster response time.
all angles.  Brighter.
OLED Technology Disadvantages  High resolution, <5μm pixel size.
 Expensive Applications of OLED Technology
 Lifespan Major applications of OLED technology are
 Water damage.  OLED TV.
 Colour balance issues.  Mobile phones with OLED screens.
 Roll top Laptop
Quantum Dots

Quantum dots are a form of nano crystals that are made from semiconductor material such as silicon,
germanium, cadmium sulfide, cadmium selenide, and indium phosphide. Quantum dots are only 1 nm to 12 nm
in diameter (a nm is one billionth of a meter). Billions of dots could fit on the head of a pin! Because of their
small size, quantum effects arise due to the confinement of electrons and holes; as a result, material properties
are very different than the normal material. One important property is that the band gap is dependent on the size
of the dots. When excited from an external source, dots formed from semiconductors emit light in the visible
range as well as infrared and ultraviolet, depending on their size. The higher-frequency blue light is emitted by
smaller dots suspended in solution (larger band gap); red light is emitted from solutions with larger dots (smaller
band gap). Solutions containing the quantum dots glow eerily with specific colors as shown in the
Although quantum dots are not diodes themselves, they can be used in construction of light-emitting diodes as
well as display devices and a variety of other applications. As you know, LEDs work by generating a specific
frequency (color) of light, which is determined by the band gap. To produce white light, blue LEDs are coated
with a phosphor that adds yellow light to the blue, forming white. The result is not a pure white, but tends to be
harsh and makes colors appear unnatural. While this is satisfactory for displays and signs, many people do not
like it for home lighting. Quantum dots can be used to modify the basic color of LEDs by converting higher
energy photons (blue) to photons of lower energy. The result is a color that more closely approximates an
incandescent bulb. Quantum dot filters can be designed to contain combinations of colors, giving designers
control of the spectrum. The important advantage of quantum dot technology is that it does not lose the incoming
light; it merely absorbs the light and reradiates it at a different frequency. This enables control of color without
giving up efficiency. By placing a quantum dot filter in front of a white LED, the spectrum can be made to look
like that of an incandescent bulb. The resulting light is more satisfactory for general illumination, while retaining
the advantages of LEDs.
There are other promising applications, particularly in medical applications. Water-soluble quantum dots are
used as a biochemical luminescent marker for cellular imaging and medical research. Research is also being
done on quantum dots as the basic device units for information processing by manipulating two energy levels
within the quantum dot.
applications of quantum dot

Photovoltaic devices-solar cells Biology- Biosensors, Imaging LED

Quantum Computation Flat Pannel displays Memory elements Photodetectors Lasers

The Photodiode

The photodiode is a device that operates in reverse bias, where is Iλ the reverse light current. The photodiode has
a small transparent window that allows light to strike the pn junction. A photodiode differs from a rectifier diode
in that when its pn junction is exposed to light, the reverse current increases with the light intensity. When there
is no incident light, the reverse current, I λ, is almost negligible and is called the dark current.

The reverse-biased current is produced by thermally generated electron-hole pairs in the depletion region,
which are swept across the pn junction by the electric field created by the reverse voltage. In a rectifier diode, the
reverse leakage current increases with temperature due to an increase in the number of electron-hole pairs. A
photodiode differs from a rectifier diode in that when its pn junction is exposed to light, the reverse current
increases with the light intensity. When there is no incident light, the reverse current, is almost negligible and is
called the dark current. An increase in the amount of light intensity, expressed as irradiance (mW/cm2),
produces an increase in the reverse current,
Advantages of photodiode : Disadvantages of photodiode :
 The photodiode is linear  Require increases in the dark current
 Low resistance  It depends on the temperature
 A very good spectral response  Small active area
 Better frequency response  Normal PN junction photodiode has a very high
 Low dark current response time
 Fastest photodetector  It has very low sensitivity
 Long lifetime  Light sensitive device
 Low noise  Poor temperature stability
 High quantum efficiency  Change in current is very small, hence may not be
 It is highly sensitive to the light sufficient to drive the circuit
 Compact and lightweight  It need offset voltage
 No high voltage requires
 Ruggedized the mechanical stress
 Using photodiode the speed of operation is very high
Applications of Photodiode

 The applications of photodiodes involve similar applications of photodetectors like charge-coupled devices,
photoconductors, and photomultiplier tubes.
 These diodes are used in consumer electronics devices like smoke detectors, compact disc players, and
televisions and remote controls in VCRs.
 In other consumer devices like clock radios, camera light meters, and street lights, photoconductors are more
frequently used rather than photodiodes.
 Photodiodes are frequently used for exact measurement of the intensity of light in science & industry.
Generally, they have an enhanced, more linear response than photoconductors.
 Photodiodes are also widely used in numerous medical applications like instruments to analyze samples,
detectors for computed tomography, and also used in blood gas monitors.
 These diodes are much faster & more complex than normal PN junction diodes and hence are frequently used
for lighting regulation and in optical communications.

The Laser Diode

The term laser stands for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. Laser light is monochromatic,
which means that it consists of a single color and not a mixture of colors. Laser light is also called coherent light,
a single wavelength, as compared to incoherent light, which consists of a wide band of wavelengths. The laser
diode normally emits coherent light, whereas the LED emits incoherent light.
 The basic construction of a laser diode is shown in Figure 3–48(b). A pn junction is formed by two layers
of doped gallium arsenide. The length of the pn junction bears a precise relationship with the wavelength of the
light to be emitted. There is a highly reflective surface at one end of the pn junction and a partially reflective
surface at the other end, forming a resonant cavity for the photons. External leads provide the anode and cathode
connections. The basic operation is as follows. The laser diode is forward-biased by an external voltage source.
As electrons move through the junction, recombination occurs just as in an ordinary diode. As electrons fall into
holes to recombine, photons are released. A released photon can strike an atom, causing another photon to be
released. As the forward current is increased, more electrons enter the depletion region and cause more photons
to be emitted. Eventually some of the photons that are randomly drifting within the depletion region strike the
reflected surfaces perpendicularly. These reflected photons move along the depletion region, striking atoms and
releasing additional photons due to the avalanche effect.
This back-and-forth movement of photons increases as the generation of photons “snowballs” until a very intense
beam of laser light is formed by the photons that pass through the partially reflective end of the pn junction. Each
photon produced in this process is identical to the other photons in energy level, phase relationship, and frequency.
So a single wavelength of intense light emerges from the laser diode, as indicated in Figure 3–48(c). Laser diodes
have a threshold level of current above which the laser action occurs and below which the diode behaves
essentially as an LED, emitting incoherent light.

An Application Laser diodes and photodiodes are used in the pick-up system of compact disk (CD) players.
Audio information (sound) is digitally recorded in stereo on the surface of a compact disk in the form of
microscopic “pits” and “flats.” A lens arrangement focuses the laser beam from the diode onto the CD surface.
As the CD rotates, the lens and beam follow the track under control of a servomotor. The laser light, which is
altered by the pits and flats along the recorded track, is reflected back from the track through a lens and optical
system to infrared photodiodes. The signal from the photodiodes is then used to reproduce the digitally recorded
sound. Laser diodes are also used in laser printers and fiber-optic systems.

Advantages of LASER diode:

 Simple economic design  Better modulation capability

 It has low power as compared to other types of  The laser diode has a high coupling efficiency
laser diodes  It has a smaller size as compared to other types
 It can be used at high temperatures of laser diodes
 It gives high optical power  Production of light can be precisely controlled
 In this diode cheaper device to produce laser  Laser diode to transmit optical output powers
output between the range of about 5 and 10 mW
 Low spectral width (3.5 nm)  Compact
 The delivered system not as expensive as hard  It is easily manufactured in arrays
tissue laser diode  Ability to maintain the intrinsic layer
characteristics over long time periods
Disadvantages of LASER diode:

 It produces a more divergent laser beam  A speckle pattern appears as two coherent
 They require big and costly optics for a large types of light beams to added or subtracts their electric
source of size field depending upon their relative phases at the end
of the fiber optic device
 It has a critical heating problem
 Poorly absorb in hard tissue and
 Hight drive current to drive the large laser for
hydroxyapatite
pellets
 Current produces unfavorable thermal
 Expensive
characteristics
 Necessitates the use of cooling and power
stabilization
Applications of Laser diode:

 These diodes are used extensively in different industries like defense and telecommunication
 The laser beam is used for transmission of signal within optical fiber communication also because optical
finer uses high focused beam.
 It is used as a barcode reader
 Lasers are used in the medical field for different treatments.
 It is used in CD & DVD players
 In telecom, these are used as the main source with 1.3 & 1.5-micrometer bands
 Lasers are high-intensity signals which are used in industries for different purposes like drilling, welding
& cutting.

Difference between LED & Laser Diode

The main difference between LED and Laser Diode includes the following.

LED LASER
LED stands for light-emitting diode LASER stands for light amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation
LED doesn’t require feedback LASER requires feedback
LED is not highly directional It is extremely directional
LED is polychromatic It is extremely monochromatic
Spontaneous emission is accountable for it. Spontaneous emission is accountable for it.

LEDs generate a different and incoherent light ray. The laser generates a coherent & monochromatic
light signal
It is not reliable It is highly reliable
Quick response As compared to LED, LASER response is faster.

Moderate bandwidth Higher bandwidth

Not energetic Highly energetic
LEDs are two types like surface emitter & Edge LASER is two types like Gas & Semiconductor Laser
emitter
LEDs are reliable, small in size, and uses small Laser’s are less reliable, big & uses more power as
power. compared to LED
LED drive current ranges from 50A to 100mA LASER drive current ranges from 5A t0 40mA.