Instruments in measurements

systems

Dr. Janakarajan Ramkumar

Professor
Department of Mechanical & Design Program
IIT Kanpur, India.
 Contents
 Types of Instruments

 Role of Instruments in Measurement Systems

 Applications of Measurement Systems

 Elements of a generalized Measurement System

Types of Instruments
 Types of Instruments
Absolute Instruments Secondary Instruments
These instruments give the These instruments are so
magnitude of the quantity constructed that the quantity
under measurement in terms being measured can only be
of physical constants of the recorded by observing the
instrument. output indicated by the
instrument.
Example :
Tangent Galvanometer, These instrument are
Rayleigh’s Current Balance calibrated by comparison with
an absolute instrument or
another secondary instrument
which has already been
calibrated against an absolute
instrument.
 Types of Instruments
Deflection Type Measuring Instruments
• The instruments in which the measured quantity produces physical
effects which deflect or displace the moving system of the instruments
in known as the deflection type instrument.

• In other words, the instrument in which the deflection provides the

basis for measuring the electrical quantity is known as the deflection
type instrument.

• Such type of instrument is used for measures under dynamic

condition.
 Types of Instruments
Deflection Type Measuring Instruments
• The deflecting type instrument has opposite effects which oppose the
displacement of moving systems.

• The opposite effect is so designed that their magnitude increases with

the increases in the deflection or displacement of the moving system
which is caused by the measuring quantity.

• The balance is attained when the opposite effects are equal to the
cause of producing the deflection or movement of moving points.
 Types of Instruments
Deflection Type Measuring Instruments

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 Types of Instruments
Deflection Type Measuring Instruments
• In a permanent magnet moving coil ammeter, the deflection of the
moving point is directly proportional to the current (the quantity
under measurement) flow through it.

• The torque Td acting to the coil is directly proportional to the current

and it is expressed in the form of an equation shown below.
𝑇𝑑 = 𝐺 × 𝐼 … … … … (1)
Where, G is constant, and it is independent of flux density, the
area of moving coil and number of turns.

• The opposite effect occurs because of the spring whose torque is

proportional to the deflection θ and it is expressed as:
𝑇𝑐 = 𝐾 × 𝜃 … … … . . (2)
Where K is the spring constant, and their value depends on the
material and dimension of springs.
 Types of Instruments
Deflection Type Measuring Instruments-Example

• Under balanced condition the

𝑇𝑑 = 𝑇𝑐 … … … . . (3)

• By substituting the value of Td and Tc in equation (3), we get

𝐺×𝐼 = 𝐾×𝜃
𝐾
𝐼 = ×𝜃
𝐺

• The value of the measured quantity and current depends on

the deflection angle θ and the meter constant G and K. The
value of currents can be directly read with respect to the
deflecting angle θ, which is calibrated by considering the value
of G and K.
 Types of Instruments
Deflection Type Measuring Instruments-Disadvantages

The following are the disadvantages of deflection type instruments.

1. The accuracy of the instruments is low.

2. The sensitivity of the instruments is less than the null type
instruments.

The value of the measured quantity depends on the calibration of

the instruments.
 Types of Instruments
Null Type Measuring Instruments

• An instrument in which zero or null indication determines the

magnitude of measured quantity, such type of instrument is called a
null type instrument.

• It uses a null detector which indicating the null condition when the
measured quantity and the opposite quantity are same.

• Such type of instrument has high accuracy and also it is very

sensitive.
 Types of Instruments
Null Type Measuring Instruments

• For the operation of the null type instrument, the following

condition requires.
1. The effect produced by the measuring quantity.
2. The opposing effects whose value are accurately known. It is
necessary for measuring for determining the numerical value of the
measured quantity accurately.
3. A detector which detects the null conditions, i.e., a detector is a
device which indicates zero deflection when the balance condition
occurs.
 Types of Instruments
Null Type Measuring Instruments-Example

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 Types of Instruments
Null Type Measuring Instruments-Example

• Consider a null point instruments (i.e., the DC potentiometer)

wherein an unknown emf Ex is measured.

• The slide wire of the potentiometer has been measured regarding

emf with the help of standard emf source.

• The null detector is a current galvanometer whose deflection is

proportional to the unbalance emf, i.e., is that the difference
between the emf Eab across portion ab of slide wire and the
unknown emf Ex., as soon as both are equal.

• Therefore the unknown emf Ex is equal to Eab which is directly

indicated by the measured scale places along the slide wire.
 Types of Instruments
Null Type Measuring Instruments-
Advantages
The following are the advantages of the null type instruments:

1. The accuracy of the null type instrument is high. This is because the
opposing effect is measured with the help of the standards which
have a high degree of accuracy.

2. The null type instrument is highly sensitive.

3. In this type of instrument, the balanced quantity is measured out.

4. The detector has to cover a small range around the balanced point
and hence it is highly sensitive.

5. In null type instrument, the detector need not to measure, it has only
to detect the presence and direction of unbalance and not the
magnitude of unbalance.
 Types of Instruments
Analog vs Digital Instruments
Analog instrument Digital instrument
The instrument which gives output The instrument which gives output
that varies continuously as quantity that varies in discrete steps and only
to be measured is known as analog has finite number of values is
instrument. known as digital instrument.
The accuracy of analog instrument The accuracy of digital instrument is
is less. more.
The analog instruments required The digital instruments required less
more power. power.
Sensitivity of analog instrument is Sensitivity of digital instrument is
more. less.
 Types of Instruments
Analog vs Digital Instruments (contd.)
Analog instrument Digital instrument
The digital instruments are
The analog instruments are cheap.
expensive.
The analog instruments are The digital instruments are not easily
extremely portable. portable.
The resolution of analog instruments The resolution of digital instruments
is less. is more.
 Types of Instruments
Analog vs Digital Instruments

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 Role of Instruments in
Measurement Systems
1. Indicating Function: Instruments use different kinds of methods
for supplying information concerning the variable quantity under
measurement.

2. Recording Function: Instrument makes written record, usually

on paper, of the value of the quantity under measurement
against time or some other variable.

3. Controlling Function: Most important functions especially in the

field of industrial control processes.
In this, information is used by the instrument or the system
to control the original measured quantity.
Role of Instruments in
Measurement Systems
Applications of Measurement Systems

• Every application of measurement, including those not yet invented,

can be put into one of these three categories or some combination of
them:

1. Monitoring of processes and operations

2. Control of processes and operations

3. Experimental engineering analysis

Applications of Measurement Systems

Monitoring of Processes and Operations

• Here the measuring device is being used to keep track of some

quantity.

• Certain applications of measuring instruments may be characterized

as having essentially a monitoring function,
• For example: thermometers, barometers, and water, gas, and
electric meters, automotive speedometer and fuel gage, and
compass.
Applications of Measurement Systems

Monitoring of Processes and Operations

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Applications of Measurement Systems
Control of Processes and Operations

• It is one of the most important classes of measurement

application.
• Sensors are used in feedback-control systems and many
measurement systems themselves use feedback principles in their
operation.
• Sensors are used in feedback systems and feedback systems are used in
sensors.
• So an instrument can serve as a component of a control system. To
control any variable in a feedback control system, it is first necessary to
measure it. Every feedback-control system will have at least one
measuring device as a vital component.
Applications of Measurement Systems
Control of Processes and Operations

• A single control system may require information from many

measuring instruments,
• For example: industrial machine and process controllers,
aircraft control systems, automotive control systems (speed
control, antilock braking, coolant temperature regulating, air
conditioning, engine pollution, etc.).
Applications of Measurement Systems
Control of Processes and Operations

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Applications of Measurement Systems
Control of Processes and Operations
Applications of Measurement Systems
Experimental Engineering Analysis

• In solving engineering problems, two general methods are available:

1. theoretical and
2. experimental.

• Many problems require the application of both methods and theory

and experiment should be thought of as complimenting each other.
Applications of Measurement Systems
Experimental Engineering Analysis

• Features of Theoretical Methods

• This often gives results that are of general use rather than for
restricted application.

• Invariably require the application of simplifying assumptions.

• The theoretically predicted behaviour is always different from the

real behaviour, as a simplified physical/mathematical model is
studied rather than the actual physical system.
Applications of Measurement Systems
Experimental Engineering Analysis

• Features of Theoretical Methods

• In some cases, it may lead to complicated mathematical

problems.

• Require only pencil, paper, computers, etc. Extensive laboratory

facilities are not required.

• No time delay engendered in building models,

assembling and checking instrumentation, and gathering
data.
Applications of Measurement Systems
Experimental Engineering Analysis

• Features of Experimental Methods

• This often gives results that apply only to the specific system
being tested. However, techniques such as dimensional analysis
may allow some generalization.

• No simplifying assumptions necessary if tests are run on an actual

system.

• The true behavior of the system is revealed.

Applications of Measurement Systems
Experimental Engineering Analysis

• Accurate measurements necessary to give a true picture.

• This may require expensive and complicated equipment.

• The characteristics of all the measuring and recording equipment

must be thoroughly understood.
• Actual system or a scale model required. If a scale model is used,
similarity of all significant features must be preserved.

• Considerable time required for design, construction, debugging of

apparatus.
Applications of Measurement Systems

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 Elements of a generalized
Measurement System
• It is desirable to describe both the operation and performance (static
and dynamic) of measuring instruments and associated equipment in
a generalized way without recourse to specific physical hardware.

• Here we focus on the operation which can be described in terms of

the functional elements of an instrument or instrument system.

• By concentrating on these functions and the various physical

devices available for accomplishing them, we develop our ability
to synthesize new combinations of elements leading to new and
useful instruments.
Elements of a generalized
Measurement System
 Elements of a generalized
Measurement System
Primary Sensing Element
• This is the element that first receives energy from the measured
medium and produces an output depending in some way on the
measured quantity (measurand).
•
• The output is some physical variable, e.g., displacement or voltage.

• An instrument always extracts some energy from the measured

medium.

• The measured quantity is always disturbed by the act of

measurement, which makes a perfect measurement theoretically
impossible.

• Good instruments are designed to minimize this loading effect.

 Elements of a generalized
Measurement System
Primary Sensing Element

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 Elements of a generalized
Measurement System
Variable Conversion Element

• It may be necessary to convert the output signal of the primary

sensing element to another more suitable variable.

• It has a function also to preserve the information content of the

original signal.
 Elements of a generalized
Measurement System
Variable Conversion Element

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 Elements of a generalized
Measurement System
Data Presentation Element

• If the information about the measured quantity is to be com the

human senses.

• This municated to a human being for monitoring, control, or

analysis purposes, it must be put into a form recognizable by one
of element performs this “translation” function.
 Elements of a generalized
Measurement System
Data Presentation Element

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To recapitulate:
 Various types of Instruments?

 What is the role of instruments in Measurement Systems?

 What are the applications of Measurement Systems?

 Different elements of a generalized Measurement System?

Task for Students
Thanks