micromachines

Article
Main Problems Using DEM Modeling to Evaluate the Loose
Soil Collection by Conceptual Machine as a Background for
Future Extraterrestrial Regolith Harvesting DEM Models
Przemysław Młynarczyk * and Damian Brewczyński

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Cracow University of Technology, 31-155 Kraków, Poland;

[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Nowadays, rapid product development is a key factor influencing a company’s success.
In the Space 4.0. era, an integrated approach with the use of 3D printing and DEM modeling can
be particularly effective in the development of technologies related to space mining. Unfortunately,
both 3D printing and DEM modeling are not without flaws. This article shows the possibilities
and problems resulting from the use of DEM simulation and 3D printing simultaneously in the
rapid development of a hypothetical mining machine. For the subsequent development of the
regolith harvesting model, loose soil harvesting simulations were performed and the underlying
problems were defined and discussed. The results show that it is possible to use both technologies



simultaneously to be able to effectively and accurately model the behavior of this type of machine in


various gravitational conditions in the future.
Citation: Młynarczyk, P.;
Brewczyński, D. Main Problems
Keywords: DEM; space mining; 3D printing; regolith; conceptual design; product development
Using DEM Modeling to Evaluate the
Loose Soil Collection by Conceptual
Machine as a Background for Future
Extraterrestrial Regolith Harvesting
DEM Models. Micromachines 2021, 12,
1. Introduction
1404. https://doi.org/10.3390/ Space mining has become a very popular topic in modern engineering. In recent years,
mi12111404 mainly thanks to commercial companies, the topic of extraterrestrial travel and related
engineering problems has become more and more relevant. Apart from the legal and
Academic Editors: Marco Ciarcia and sociological aspects, the most important problem seems to be the supply of raw materials to
Mehmet Remzi Dokmeci the Earth’s orbit and beyond. As it is very expensive to carry sources from earth, scientists,
engineers and owners of commercial space companies are now looking towards the moon
Received: 30 September 2021 as a relatively cheap source of raw materials [1–3]. In terrestrial conditions, standard
Accepted: 12 November 2021 development methods of technologies intended to work in a space environment are very
Published: 15 November 2021
costly and time consuming. While the creation of laboratories mapping space conditions in
terms of pressure, radiation, or temperature is well known and quite simple, getting rid
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
of the phenomena generated by Earth’s gravity requires great expenditure and the effect
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
is only partial. In the works [4,5], the problems that arose during the design and use of
published maps and institutional affil-
regolith digging equipment were presented. In the paper [6], an overview of various types
iations.
of concepts that could be used for the extraction of regolith in conditions of reduced gravity
were described. Among the many different concepts of regolith excavation mechanisms,
the most common type of design is the bucket ladder. The mechanism concept presented
in this article is a complete novelty, so DEM modeling of such a machine has not appeared
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. in the literature so far. Unfortunately, apart from a certain amount of knowledge about the
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
structure of extraterrestrial soils on which the probe landings take place, it is still not known
This article is an open access article
how they behave under low-gravity conditions. DEM simulations, which are currently
distributed under the terms and
effectively used in terrestrial soil modeling, can be used to model the interaction of soil
conditions of the Creative Commons
grains with each other under low-gravity conditions [7–9]. By designing and developing a
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
machine that interacts with the lunar or Martian regoliths, the created model can be tested
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
and adjusted by interacting with the regolith in terrestrial conditions on a test bench in
4.0/).

Micromachines 2021, 12, 1404. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi12111404 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/micromachines

 the created model can be tested and adjusted by interacting with the regolith in terrestrial
conditions on a test bench in an Earth laboratory. The model prepared in this way can be
used later for simulations for other gravitational conditions. Three-dimensional printing
is already
Micromachines 2021, 12, very
1404 common in the preparation of prototypes and elements of research test 2 of 14

stands [10–12]. The use of 3D printing techniques in this approach allows for quick geom-
etry modification and express testing of other configurations and it is also used for space
applications [13,14].anUnfortunately,
Earth laboratory. The model prepared in this way can be used later for simulations for
this approach also has many disadvantages, some of
other gravitational conditions. Three-dimensional printing is already very common in the
which are covered in this article.
preparation However,
of prototypes as this of
and elements kind of research
research test standsis not expensive,
[10–12]. The use of 3Dthis
print-
approach to designing future space
ing techniques miningallows
in this approach machines should
for quick geometrybemodification
developed asexpress
and muchtesting
as
of other configurations and it is also used for space applications
possible. Various approaches to space mining can be found in the scientific literature [15– [13,14]. Unfortunately, this
approach also has many disadvantages, some of which are covered in this article. However,
17], but in the near as future, the mechanical extraction of raw material still seems to be the
this kind of research is not expensive, this approach to designing future space mining
most likely approach. The main
machines shouldaim of this article
be developed as muchwas to showVarious
as possible. the problems
approachesand to high-
to space mining
light the advantagescan ofbeDEM
foundmodeling of the
in the scientific new concept
literature of ainmachine
[15–17], but as a future
the near future, rego-
the mechanical
extraction
lith harvesting machine concept. of raw material still seems to be the most likely approach. The main aim of this
article was to show the problems and to highlight the advantages of DEM modeling of the
new concept of a machine as a future regolith harvesting machine concept.
2. Investigated Case
2. Investigated Case
In order to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the coupled “DEM modeling–
In order to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the coupled “DEM modeling–
3D printing” design3Dapproach, the authors
printing” design approach,designed
the authors adesigned
hypothetical regolith
a hypothetical harvesting
regolith harvesting
machine presented machine
in the Figure 1. in the Figure 1.
presented

Figure 1. HypotheticalFigure 1. Hypothetical

regolith harvesting regolith harvesting
machine CADmachine
model.CAD model.
The main function of the machine is to peel a thin surface layer of soil using two
The main function ofblades
rotating the machine is to
and to collect peel via
particles a thin surface
gravity layer
at the back of machine.
of the soil using twoto
In order
rotating blades andreduce
to collect particles
the duration of thevia gravityforatrelatively
simulation the back of particles
small the machine.
(1 mm), aIn order
small to
machine
was designed. The exact dimensions of the concept are shown in
reduce the duration of the simulation for relatively small particles (1 mm), a small ma- the Figure 2.

chine was designed. The exact dimensions of the concept are shown in the Figure 2.
hines 2021, 12, x 3 of
Micromachines 2021, 12, 1404 3 of 14

Figure 2. Hypothetical harvester dimensions (in mm).

3. Simulation Model
Figure 2. Hypothetical harvester dimensions (in mm).
Nowadays, when computing resources are growing, the use of the discrete element
method (DEM) to calculate the interaction of bulk materials is becoming a common stan-
3. Simulation Model DEM calculations are still time consuming and require large computing
dard. Although
power, in the near future they will revolutionize the design process in the same way that
Nowadays, when computing resources are growing, the use of the discrete eleme
FEM and CFD simulations have. All simulations presented in this paper were performed
method (DEM) to calculatesoftware.
using Ansys/Rocky the interaction
The basisofforbulk
DEMmaterials isinbecoming
calculations a common
Rocky software is to stan
ard. Although DEM
follow the path calculations
of each particle are
usingstill
twotime consuming
equations—one and require
for particle large
translation computin
motion
(1) and second for particle rotation motion (2) [18,19]:
power, in the near future they will revolutionize the design process in the same way th
FEM and CFD simulations have. All simulations
dv p presented in this paper were perform
mp· = Fp + m p · g (1)
using Ansys/Rocky software. The basis dt for DEM calculations in Rocky software is to fo
low the path of each particle using two equations—one
dω p for particle translation motion (
Ip · = Tp (2)
and second for particle rotation motion (2) dt[18,19]:
where:
mp —particle mass;
vp —particle velocity;
𝑚 ∙ =𝐹 +𝑚 ∙𝑔 (
Fp —contact forces on the particle;
g—gravitational acceleration;
Ip —particle moment of inertia tensor; 𝑑𝜔
Tp —torque on the particle; 𝐼 ∙ =𝑇 (
ω p —particle angular velocity. 𝑑𝑡

where:
mp—particle mass;
vp—particle velocity;
Micromachines 2021, 12, x
Micromachines 2021, 12, x

Micromachines 2021, 12, 1404 4 of 14

All geometries used in the simulations were prepared in the .stl format and th
All geometries used in the simulations were prepared in the .stl format an
conditions for each simulation were the same as it is shown in Figures 3 and 4. Th
All geometries
conditions used in the simulations
for each were prepared in the .stlshown
format and the initial 3 and 4
of the container
conditions with simulation
particles
for each simulation were the
were
took place
same
the same
as it isby
as it is
sprinkling
shown in Figures and free
3 and
inarrangement
4. The
Figures
filling of of t
of
the
the container
clescontainer
under with with
the influence particles
of place
particles took
took
gravity—the place
by sprinklinggoalby sprinkling
andwas
free to
and
achieve the
arrangement
free arrangement
desired
of the particlesbed heig
cles
under under
the the
influence influence
of of
gravity—the gravity—the
goal was
same as the top cutting edge and equal to 12 mm. to goal
achieve thewas to
desired achieve
bed the
height—the desired
same bed
same as the top cutting edge and equal to 12 mm.
as the top cutting edge and equal to 12 mm.

Figure 3. Starting conditions—front view.

Figure
Figure 3. Starting
3. Starting conditions—front
conditions—front view. view.

Figure4. 4.
Figure Starting
Starting conditions—isometric
conditions—isometric view
view with with box transparency
box transparency option. option.
In the presented simulations, spherical particles were used with the sieve size varying
FigureIn 4.
from 0.5 the
to
Starting
4 mm.
conditions—isometric
presented
The DEM simulations, view with
solver used spherical
the model based
box
particles transparency
on thewere usedlinear
hysteric
option.
with the sieve si
spring
ing from
formula for0.5theto 4 mm. The
calculation DEM forces
of normal solverand usedthe the model
linear springbased
coulombon limit
the hysteric
model linea
for the In the
tangential presented
forces. To simulations,
determine the spherical
rolling resistance,particles
formula for the calculation of normal forces and the linear spring coulomb the linearwere
springused
rollingwith
limitthe siev
limit m
model
the was used.
ing tangential The
from 0.5 toforces. static
4 mm.To and
The dynamic friction
DEM solver
determine coefficient
used the
the rolling between particles
model based
resistance, was defined
on thespring
the linear hysteric
rollil
as 0.7 and between machine parts and particles as 0.3. The values used in the calculations
formula
model was forused.
the calculation
The static and of normal
dynamicforces friction and the linearbetween
coefficient
are the ones that are most often used by scientists in similar simulations [20,21].
spring coulomb
particles waslim
as
the0.7 and
tangential
Total between
tangential machine
forces.
stiffness parts was
Toin determine
contact andalso
particles
the rolling
assumed. as 0.3. The
resistance,
Such values
the used
assumptions linear inspring
are best the calc
are the
model
suited to ones
was that are
ideal used. The
spherical most often
static
shapes andin
used used by scientists
dynamic friction
the experiment. Duein similar
limitedsimulations
coefficient
to [20,21].
between particles
computational
capabilities,
Total the duration of the simulation was limited to 8 s. During this time, the
as 0.7 and tangential stiffness parts
between machine in contact was alsoasassumed.
and particles Such assumptions
0.3. The values used in the
harvester moved at a speed of 0.01 m/s, and its blades rotated at a speed of 2 rad/s,
suited
are thetospherical
idealthat
ones spherical
are most shapes
oftenused in by thescientists
experiment. Due to simulations
limited computat
collecting particles. Despite suchused
a short simulation incomputing
time, similar on one GPU [20,2
pabilities,
Total
card took the duration
over tangential of the simulation
stiffness in
24 h for each calculation. contact
In Section was was
5, the limitedalso
results to 8 s. During
assumed.
obtained this
Such
for three time, the h
assumptio
different
moved
values
suited at
of to aideal
speed
gravitational of 0.01 m/s,
acceleration,
spherical andused
its blades
corresponding
shapes rotated
to those
in the at aEarth,
on the
experiment. speed ofto2and
Moon,
Due rad/s,
Mars,
limited collectin
compu
icalpresented.
are particles.Collecting
Despiteprocess
such aisshort
shown simulation
in Figure 5. time, computing on one GPU card to
pabilities, the duration of the simulation was limited to 8 s. During this time, th
24 h for at
moved each calculation.
a speed of 0.01 In Section
m/s, and its5,blades
the results obtained
rotated for three
at a speed different
of 2 rad/s, collev
gravitational acceleration, corresponding to those on the Earth, Moon, and Mars,
ical particles. Despite such a short simulation time, computing on one GPU car
sented. Collecting process is shown in Figure 5.
24 h for each calculation. In Section 5, the results obtained for three differe
gravitational acceleration, corresponding to those on the Earth, Moon, and M
sented. Collecting process is shown in Figure 5.
Micromachines 2021, 12,
Micromachines x 12, 1404
2021, 5 of 14

Figure
Figure5.5.Particle collection
Particle collection process
process using using DEM modeling.
DEM modeling. The color ofThe color ofindicates
the particles the particles
their indic
linearvelocity.
linear velocity. Red
Redbox
boxpresents the place
presents thewhere
placethe collected
where theparticles are calculated.
collected particles are calculated.
To verify the correctness of the model calculations, experimental tests were carried
outTo
andverify thewith
compared correctness of the
the simulation model
results for thecalculations, experimental tests wer
earth gravity value.
out and compared with the simulation results for the earth gravity value.
4. Experimental Test Stand and Harvester Prototype
The vast majority of the test bench elements and the entire prototype were made with
4. the
Experimental Test Stand and Harvester Prototype
use of 3D printing techniques. To prepare the 3D CAD models, the SolidWorks software
wasThe vast majority of the test bench elements and the entire prototype were m
used.
the4.1.use of 3D printing techniques. To prepare the 3D CAD models, the SolidWo
Harvester Prototype
ware was used.
The first technology used to make the drive elements, blades, display housing, and
the first version of the harvester’s body was FDM/FFF printing. FDM It is the simplest and
4.1. Harvester
cheapest Prototype
technology that allows for the creation of relatively large elements (in relation
to SLA and SLS). The method is based on fusing the filament at a temperature of ~483 K
andThe first technology
the material used
is applied layer to make
by layer. the drive
The material elements,
obtains blades,
its final strength display hous
properties
thebyfirst version
cooling in the of
air.the harvester’s
Parts body
that have been was designed
properly FDM/FFF printing.
in the FDMdo
CAD program It is
notthe sim
require any
cheapest special processing
technology after being
that allows for collected from the
the creation of printer—they
relatively largeare ready to be (in re
elements
assembled. The advantages of this technology are:
SLA and SLS). The method is based on fusing the filament at a temperature of ~4
- The low cost of the printer;
the material is applied layer by layer. The material obtains its final strength prop
cooling in the air. Parts that have been properly designed in the CAD program
require any special processing after being collected from the printer—they are re
assembled. The advantages of this technology are:
Micromachines 2021, 12, 1404 6 of 14

- The low operating costs (material costs ~17 $/kg);

- The large printing space (up to 300 mm × 300 mm × 400 mm).
Micromachines 2021, 12, x The main disadvantage of this technology is the relatively low accuracy of the6 part of 14
(compared to other 3D printing technologies). In the X/Y plane, the accuracy is on the
level of 0.2 mm and in the Z direction, depending on the layer settings, it is in the range of
0.1
mm mm to 0.3
to 0.3 mm.mm.
The The
mainmain
part part
of theofmachine
the machine manufactured
manufactured withtechnology
with this this technology is
is shown
shown in Figure
in Figure 6. 6.

Figure6.6.Harvester
Figure Harvestermain
mainbody
bodyproduced
producedusing
usingthe
theFDM
FDMmethod.
method.

Initialtests
Initial testsshowed
showedthat thatthe theaccuracy
accuracyof ofthe
theFDM
FDMprintout
printoutwas wasnotnotsufficient
sufficientfor forthis
this
element.Particles
element. Particlesduring
duringthe thetest
testgot
gotstuck
stuckon on the
the steps
steps created
created during
during printing.
printing. Therefore,
Therefore,
SLAtechnology
SLA technologywas wasused
usedto tocreate
createthethesecond
secondversion
versionofofthetheharvester’s
harvester’sbody. body.
The
The SLA
SLAtechnology
technology consists
consists of ofhardening
hardeningaaliquidliquidphotopolymer
photopolymer with withaaUV UVlaser
laser
beam.
beam. TheThe object,
object,asasininanyany3D 3Dprinting
printing technology,
technology, is created
is created layer
layer by by layer,
layer, whilewhilethis
this technology
technology achieves
achieves a much a much
higherhigher
resolutionresolution and,higher
and, thus, thus, accuracy
higher accuracy of the
of the produced
produced
parts. Theparts. The main of
main advantage advantage of the SLAistechnology
the SLA technology that it has theis that it has
highest the highest
accuracy/reso-
accuracy/resolution
lution among 3D printing amongtechnologies.
3D printing technologies.
For FormlabsFor FORM Formlabs FORM
3 printer, it is3 0.025
printer, mm it is
in
0.025
the XYmm in the
plane andXY0.025–0.300
plane and 0.025–0.300
mm in the mm in the Z (depending
Z direction direction (depending
on the layer on the
set).layer
This
set). Thisuses
printer printer
the uses the LFS (low-force
LFS (low-force stereolithography)
stereolithography) technology,
technology, which which
reduces reduces
the forcesthe
forces
tearingtearing
the partthewhen
part when removing
removing individual
individual printprint
layerslayers
fromfrom the FEP
the FEP film. film.
As aAs a result,
result, the
the printed elements have an exceptionally smooth surface and are
printed elements have an exceptionally smooth surface and are free from imperfections. free from imperfections.
This
Thistechnology
technologyisismuch much more
more expensive
expensive than FDM,
than a liter
FDM, of photopolymer
a liter of photopolymer costs costs
from $180from
to $340. Photopolymer resin is toxic and can cause chemical burns,
$180 to $340. Photopolymer resin is toxic and can cause chemical burns, therefore, therefore, it is necessary it is
to use appropriate
necessary protectiveprotective
to use appropriate equipment and a dedicated
equipment workplace.
and a dedicated Parts leaving
workplace. Parts leav-the
printer
ing theare not ready
printer are not forready
use and forrequire
use andfurther
requireprocessing. The first step
further processing. The is to wash
first step isoffto
any remaining uncured resin with an isopropyl alcohol bath.
wash off any remaining uncured resin with an isopropyl alcohol bath. After bathing After bathing in IPA, thein
printout requires 3 h of “standing” until the remnants of the solution
IPA, the printout requires 3 h of “standing” until the remnants of the solution evaporate evaporate from the
element. This process can be accelerated by heating the part to 323
from the element. This process can be accelerated by heating the part to 323 K. The next K. The next step is the
final hardening of the parts with UV light. The last stage of processing
step is the final hardening of the parts with UV light. The last stage of processing is re- is removing the
supports,
moving the which are always
supports, whichpresent in this
are always technology,
present in thisand grindingand
technology, the joints.
grinding A harvester
the joints.
base produced using SLA technology is shown in the Figure 7.
A harvester base produced using SLA technology is shown in the Figure 7.
Micromachines
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Micromachines 2021,12,
2021, 12, x
12, x1404 7 of 14 77 of
of 11

Figure 7. Harvester main body produced using the SLA method.

Figure7.7.Harvester
Figure Harvester main
main body
body produced
produced usingusing themethod.
the SLA SLA method.

The
The rotating
Therotating blades
blades
rotating of
of the
of the
blades machine
machine
the werewere
machine mademade
were using using
made the FDM
using the FDM
FDM technique
thetechnique for both for
technique for bot
bot
bodies.
bodies. The
Theblade and
blade andthe entire
the assembled
entire machine
assembled are
machine shown
are in Figure
shown in
bodies. The blade and the entire assembled machine are shown in Figure 8.8.
Figure 8.

Figure
Figure8.8.
Figure (A)
8.(A)
(A)3D3D
3D printed
printed blade,
blade,
printed (B)
(B) fully
(B) fully
blade, assembled
assembled
fully harvester.
harvester.
assembled harvester.
All
Allthe main tests presented in this article were performed using a harvester main part
All the
the main
main tests
tests presented
presented in
printed with the SLA technology.
in this
this article
article were
were performed
performed using
using aa harvester
harvester mai
mai
part
part printed
printed with
with the
the SLA
SLA technology.
technology.

4.2.
4.2. Test
Test Stand
Stand
The
The test
test stand,
stand, presented
presented in
in the
the Figure
Figure 9,
9, was
was designed
designed to
to allow
allow easy
easy adjustment
adjustment oo
the
the angle of attack and the height of the harvester above the material. For this
angle of attack and the height of the harvester above the material. For this purpose
purpose
brass
brass M4 inserts were installed in the bodywork. They were hot stamped in the FDM
M4 inserts were installed in the bodywork. They were hot stamped in the FDM
printout.
printout. In
In the
the SLA
SLA printout,
printout, the
the tolerances
tolerances of
of the
the insert
insert holes
holes had
had to
to be
be changed
changed becaus
becaus
 Micromachines 2021, 12, 1404 8 of 14

4.2. Test Stand

Micromachines 2021, 12, x The test stand, presented in the Figure 9, was designed to allow easy adjustment of the8 of 14
angle of attack and the height of the harvester above the material. For this purpose, brass
M4 inserts were installed in the bodywork. They were hot stamped in the FDM printout. In
the SLA printout, the tolerances of the insert holes had to be changed because the hardened
theresin
hardened
does notresin
meltdoes
undernot
the melt under
influence the influence
of heat, of heat,
but degrades. In thisbut degrades.
technology, theIn this tech-
inserts
nology, the inserts were mounted in larger holes with glue.
were mounted in larger holes with glue.

Figure 9. Test
Figure 9. stand with equipment:
Test stand 1—plexiglass
with equipment: box, 2—linear
1—plexiglass guide,
box, 2—linear 3—stepper
guide, motor,
3—stepper 4—supporting
motor, beam,
4—supporting 5—har-
beam,
vester,5—harvester,
6—belt transmission, 7—adjustable tensioner, 8—power supply, 9—microcontroller, 10—control box with display,
6—belt transmission, 7—adjustable tensioner, 8—power supply, 9—microcontroller, 10—control box with
11—servo controller,
display, 11—servo12—servo
controller, motors,
12—servo13—PC.
motors, 13—PC.

TheThe tests
tests were
were carriedout
carried outinside
insideaaboxbox made
made of of transparent
transparent plexiglass
plexiglass(1).(1).On
Onthethe top
top of the box were mounted linear guides (2) and a stepper motor (3).
of the box were mounted linear guides (2) and a stepper motor (3). The harvester (5) was The harvester (5)
was mounted to the supporting beam (4), which was moving on the guides driven by a
mounted to the supporting beam (4), which was moving on the guides driven by a stepper
stepper motor using a belt transmission (6). An adjustable tensioner (7) was installed on
motor using a belt transmission (6). An adjustable tensioner (7) was installed on the belt
the belt transmission to avoid slippage. The harvester consisted of a body, top cover, and
transmission
two high-torqueto avoid
servo slippage.
motors (12). The
Twoharvester
independent consisted of a body,
control systems weretopusedcover, and two
to control
high-torque
the system.servo motors
The first (12). Two independent
was responsible for controllingcontrol systems
the stepper were used
motor—the to control
harvester feed. the
system. The first was responsible for controlling the stepper motor—the
It consisted of a 12 V power supply (8) and a SKR 1.3 driver (9) equipped with a processor, harvester feed. It
consisted
to which ofaastepper
12 V power
motorsupply (8) and (10)
and a display a SKR 1.3connected.
were driver (9) equipped with written
The previously a processor,
to GCODE
which aprogram
steppersavedmotor on and
the SD card was (10)
a display started
were using the displayThe
connected. screen. The second
previously written
system was responsible for controlling the servo motors. It consisted
GCODE program saved on the SD card was started using the display screen. The second of a servo Maestro
24-Channel USB Servo Controller (11) powered by a 6V battery, to which two servos were
system was responsible for controlling the servo motors. It consisted of a servo Maestro
connected. The control was carried out using a laptop (13) equipped with Maestro Control
24-Channel USB Servo Controller (11) powered by a 6V battery, to which two servos were
Center software and connected via USB to the controller. Two independently controlled
connected.
servos wereTheintentionally
control wasusedcarried out using
to avoid a laptop
blocking (13) equipped
the system in case onewith
of theMaestro
blades metControl
Center software
resistance. and
In this connected via
configuration, USB toblade
the second the controller.
would continueTwo toindependently controlled
spin at the set speed
servos were intentionally used to avoid
even with the first blade completely locked. blocking the system in case one of the blades met
resistance. In this configuration, the second blade would continue to spin at the set speed
5. Results
even with the first blade completely locked.
This chapter presents the results related to two issues: an attempt to determine the
5. Results between the simulation result and the conducted experiment and an attempt to
correlation

This chapter presents the results related to two issues: an attempt to determine the
correlation between the simulation result and the conducted experiment and an attempt
to compare the results obtained in the simulation with different gravitational conditions.
The main limitations of the proposed method are also described.
 Micromachines 2021, 12, 1404 9 of 14

compare the results obtained in the simulation with different gravitational conditions. The
main limitations of the proposed method are also described.
Micromachines 2021, 12, x
5.1. Experimental Investigations Results
Two different particles’ material and shape were used in the investigations, expanded
Micromachines 2021, 12, x clay as a substitute of a material with complex shapes and polymer balls as an idealized9 of 14
idealized example of particles, similar to that used in simulations. Both particles
example of particles, similar to that used in simulations. Both particles are presented in the
sented
Figure 10.in the Figure 10.
idealized example of particles, similar to that used in simulations. Both particles are pre-
sented in the Figure 10.

Figure
Figure
Figure 10.10.
10. Particles
Particles
Particles usedused
used in thein
in the the investigations:
investigations:
investigations: (A) (A)balls,
(A) polymer
polymer polymer
balls, (B) balls, (B)
(B) expanded
expanded clay.expanded clay.
clay.

In
InInorder
order to obtain
to obtainthe theappropriate
appropriatediameters
diameters ininthethe expanded
expanded clay substrate, the
material order
was to obtain
sieved through the
a appropriate
sieve with a diameters
mesh of 3 mm so theclay
inthat the
substrate,
expanded
maximum
the ma-
clay
size substrate
of
terial was sieved through a sieve with a mesh of 3 mm so that the maximum size of the
terial
the was
element sieved
was not through
larger in anya sieve
directionwith
thana mesh
the spheresof 3 mm
used in so
the
element was not larger in any direction than the spheres used in the simulation. This ma-
that the
simulation. maximum
This si
element
material
terial is was not larger
characterized
is characterized by in any direction
non-spherical
by non-spherical particlesthan
particleswith the
with highspheres
high surface used in the
roughness
surface roughness and,simulation.
and, thus,
thus,
with smaller
terial
with bulk density
is characterized
smaller bulk density than than polymer balls.
by non-spherical
polymer balls. particles with high surface roughness an
All
All experimental
experimental investigations
investigations were performed using
using aa predefined
predefinedalgorithm
algorithmthat
with
was
smaller
developed to
bulk
bring
density
the
than were
experimental
polymerperformed
balls.
conditions as close as possible to the simulation
that
was developed to bring
All experimental the experimental
investigations conditions as close as possible to the
were performed using a predefined algori simulation
conditions. The procedure consisted of five steps:
conditions. The procedure consisted of five steps:
1.wasParticles
developed to bring
were poured intothe
theexperimental
box, which wereconditions
distributed using as close as possible
a specially prepared to the sim
1. Particles were poured into the box, which were distributed using a specially prepared
conditions.
tool (Figure The11)procedure
to obtain theconsisted
appropriateofmaterial
five steps:
tool (Figure 11) to obtain the appropriate material bed height.
bed height.
2. The harvester was set in the correct position, just before the particle bed.
1. The
2. Particles
harvester were
was poured
set in theinto theposition,
correct box, which werethe
just before distributed
particle bed.using a specially p
3. The servo motors were run and the rotation speed set at 2 rad/s.
3. The servo
tool (Figuremotors were
11)with run
to obtain and the
the rotation speed
appropriate set at
material2 rad/s.
bed height.
4. Camera record run the slow motion option (240 frames/s).
4. Camera record run with the slow motion option (240 frames/s).
2.
5. The harvester was set in the correct
Harvester feed started with a speed of 0.01 m/s. position, just before the particle bed.
5. Harvester feed started with a speed of 0.01 m/s.
3. The servo motors were run and the rotation speed set at 2 rad/s.
4. Camera record run with the slow motion option (240 frames/s).
5. Harvester feed started with a speed of 0.01 m/s.

Figure 11.
Figure 11. Test
Testbeds:
beds: (A)
(A)polymer
polymerparticles
particlesduring
duringdistribution,
distribution,(B)
(B)expanded
expandedclay
claydistributed
distributedsoil.
soil.

The whole process was repeated ten times for each case and the obtained results were
averaged. Unfortunately, in many cases the material was jammed in the blades and the
blades became immobilized. Investigations performed using FDM-produced harvester
were unsuccessful. For both materials, the blades was jamming and tests were inter-
rupted.
Figure The situation
11. Test beds:was
(A)much betterparticles
polymer when theduring
SLA-produced body was
distribution, used. However,
(B) expanded clay distribu
 Micromachines 2021, 12, 1404 10 of 14

The whole process was repeated ten times for each case and the obtained results were
averaged. Unfortunately, in many cases the material was jammed in the blades and the
blades became immobilized. Investigations performed using FDM-produced harvester
Micromachines 2021, 12, x were unsuccessful. For both materials, the blades was jamming and tests were interrupted. 1
The situation was much better when the SLA-produced body was used. However, the
non-uniform expanded clay shapes still generated so much trouble that not a single 8
s experiment could be carried out without the blade jamming. Only by idealizing the
geometries
full 8 s test.soThe thatbehavior
they corresponded to the geometry
of the system in this from
case the
was DEM
alsomodel,
very i.e., usingto that
similar
polymer balls with a diameter of 1–4 mm and a smooth body, was it possible to conduct
simulation. The most interesting similarity was the characteristic bursts of balls app
a full 8 s test. The behavior of the system in this case was also very similar to that of the
due to the short-term
simulation. concentration
The most interesting similarityof stresses
was betweenbursts
the characteristic particles and
of balls rotating blad
appearing
ter the tests, slow-motion video was analyzed in order to count the balls
due to the short-term concentration of stresses between particles and rotating blades. loaded in
After
the tests,at
machine slow-motion video An
0.5 s intervals. wasexample
analyzed ofin order to count
the freeze the balls
frames are loaded
showninto the
in Figure 12.
machine at 0.5 s intervals. An example of the freeze frames are shown in Figure 12.

Figure 12. Freeze frames used to calculate the number of particles collected by the harvester at
Figure 12.time
different Freeze
pointsframes
(which used
passedto thecalculate the number
black dividing of particles
line): (A) experiment collected
start (0 s), (B) by
afterthe
1.5 harvester
s,
ferent time
(C) after 3 s,points
(D) after(which
4.5 s, (E)passed
after 6 s,the
(F) black
after 7.5dividing
s. line): (A) experiment start (0 s), (B) afte
(C) after 3 s, (D) after 4.5 s, (E) after 6 s, (F) after 7.5 s.
Successful experimental studies were compared with the results obtained using the
DEM model. A model was used for the comparison in which the boundary conditions
Successful
corresponded to experimental studies were
the terrestrial conditions. Figurecompared with the results
13 shows a comparison obtained usi
of the particle
DEM model.
collection rate A
formodel was used
the simulation time for the
of 8 s. Ascomparison
the simulationin which
was the boundary
developed and took cond
corresponded to theofterrestrial
into account particles conditions.
different sizes Figure
in the 0.5–4 13 shows
mm range, a comparison
two different parametersof the p
were compared, being their analogs and allowing for a qualitative
collection rate for the simulation time of 8 s. As the simulation was analysis of thedeveloped
results. and
The number of particles collected by the machine in the experiment was compared to the
into account particles of different sizes in the 0.5–4 mm range, two different param
mass of collected particles in the DEM simulation.
were compared, being their analogs and allowing for a qualitative analysis of the r
The number of particles collected by the machine in the experiment was compared
mass of collected particles in the DEM simulation.
 corresponded to the terrestrial conditions. Figure 13 shows a comparison of the parti
collection rate for the simulation time of 8 s. As the simulation was developed and to
into account particles of different sizes in the 0.5–4 mm range, two different paramet
were compared, being their analogs and allowing for a qualitative analysis of the resu
Micromachines 2021, 12, 1404 The number of particles collected by the machine in the experiment was compared
11 of 14 to
mass of collected particles in the DEM simulation.

Micromachines 2021, 12, x 11 of

As13.
Figure it can be seen
Simulation andinexperimental
the Figureresults
13, the simulation results were in good agreement w
comparison.
Figure 13. Simulation and experimental results comparison.
the experimental results for the selected quantities. Although it is difficult to notice it
As it can be seen in the Figure 13, the simulation results were in good agreement
the
withgraph, up to 4 s the
the experimental differences
results between
for the selected the average
quantities. Although value measured
it is difficult in the expe
to notice
mental tests
it on the and up
graph, thetodeviations were the
4 s the differences largestthe
between and even reached
average 40%. This
value measured proves th
in the
the first seconds of interaction between the machine and the bed of particles are high
experimental tests and the deviations were the largest and even reached 40%. This proves
that the first seconds
unpredictable. Afterof4interaction between the
s, the differences machine
were and around
already the bed of8%particles
and, asarecan
highly
be seen, t
unpredictable. After 4 s, the differences were already around 8% and, as can be seen,
DEM results were within the uncertainty ranges in this qualitative analysis. In the Figu
the DEM results were within the uncertainty ranges in this qualitative analysis. In the
14,Figure
the correlations between these parameters for different time points are presented.
14, the correlations between these parameters for different time points are presented.

Figure 14. Correlation between chosen parameters.

Figure 14. Correlation between chosen parameters
Investigations showed very good agreement between the simulation and experiment
withInvestigations
the Pearson correlation
showedcoefficient
very goodequal to 0.9883. between
agreement In this casethe
authors decidedand
simulation to use
experime
the described DEM model to compare the influence of gravity on the regolith harvesting.
with the Pearson correlation coefficient equal to 0.9883. In this case authors decided to u
the described
5.2. SimulationDEM
Resultsmodel to compare the influence of gravity on the regolith harvestin
The presented DEM model, positively verified on the test stand, was used to perform
5.2. Simulationcalculations
comparative Results of machine–particle interactions under various gravitational con-
ditions.
The Apart from the
presented DEM conditions
model,corresponding to the terrestrial
positively verified conditions,
on the test calculations
stand, was used to perfor
were made for the gravitational values on the moon and mars. The adopted values of
comparative calculations of machine–particle interactions under various gravitation
gravitational acceleration are presented in Table 1.
conditions. Apart from the conditions corresponding to the terrestrial conditions, calcu
tions
Tablewere made forconditions
1. Gravitational the gravitational
used in DEMvalues on the moon and mars. The adopted valu
simulations.
of gravitational acceleration are presented in Table 1. 2
Case Gravity acc [m/s ]

Table 1. GravitationalEarth
conditions used in DEM simulations. 9.81
Mars 3.70
Moon 1.62
Case Gravity acc [m/s2]
Earth 9.81
Mars 3.70
Moon 1.62
 Micromachines 2021, 12, 1404 12 of 14

For such defined conditions, leaving the remaining boundary conditions as those
described in Section 3, the intuitively expected results were obtained—the lower the
Micromachines 2021, 12, x
gravity value, the weaker the effect of collecting particles and the greater the 12 of 14
effect of
Micromachines 2021, 12, x 12 of 14
scattering them in the air. In Figure 15, the masses of collected particles vs. time for three
different gravity conditions are presented.

Figure 15.15.
Figure Mass of of
Mass collected particles
collected in in
particles time forfor
time different gravitational
different conditions.
gravitational conditions.
Figure 15. Mass of collected particles in time for different gravitational conditions.
One
One ofof
thethe decisive
decisive factors
factors influencing
influencing thethe results
results is is certainly
certainly thethe effect
effect ofof gravity
gravity onon
the
the One
shots ofofparticles
shots
of the decisive
particles factors
above
above influencing
themachine
the machinebody
bodytheand
results
and is certainly
the surface
the layerthe
of effect
of the
the of gravity
collected
collected on
material.
mate-
the
rial. shots
Figure of16
16
Figure particles
shows
showstheabove
highest
the theand
highestmachine
widest
and body andshots
particle
widest the
particle surface
forfor
shots layer
all all
three of the
cases.
three collected mate-
cases.
rial. Figure 16 shows the highest and widest particle shots for all three cases.

Figure 16. Particle “shots” for: (A) Earth gravity, (B) Mars gravity, (C) Moon gravity values.
Figure 16. Particle “shots” for: (A) Earth gravity, (B) Mars gravity, (C) Moon gravity values.
Figure 16. Particle “shots” for: (A) Earth gravity, (B) Mars gravity, (C) Moon gravity values.
It is hard to visualize it on the picture, but for lower values of gravity, the particles
It is
stayed hard in
longer to the
visualize it on
air and flewthe picture,
away frombut
thefor lower values
harvester of gravity,
at greater the particles
distances than for
higher values of gravity. Table 2 shows a comparison of the number of particles than
stayed longer in the air and flew away from the harvester at greater distances liftedfor
in
higher values of gravity. Table 2 shows a comparison
the machine–particle interaction during an 8 s simulation. of the number of particles lifted in
 Micromachines 2021, 12, 1404 13 of 14

Micromachines 2021, 12, x 1

It is hard to visualize it on the picture, but for lower values of gravity, the particles
stayed longer in the air and flew away from the harvester at greater distances than for
Table
higher2.values
Particles lifted during
of gravity. Table 2simulation.
shows a comparison of the number of particles lifted in
the machine–particle interaction during an 8 s simulation.
Case Number of Particles Increase
Earth
Table 2. Particles lifted during simulation. 508 0
Mars
Case 956
Number of Particles Increase 88.2%
Moon
Earth 508 1323 0 160.4%
Mars 956 88.2%
Moon 1323 160.4%
The presented simulation results suggest that the gravity drop becomes imp
only when is very high. Differences between accelerations of 9.81 m/s2 and 3.70 m/s
The presented simulation results suggest that the gravity drop becomes important
not as significant as might be expected. In Figure 17, the logarithmic correlation be
only when is very high. Differences between accelerations of 9.81 m/s2 and 3.70 m/s2 were
lifted
not asparticles
significantand gravity
as might with a high
be expected. Pearson
In Figure 17, the correlation factor is between
logarithmic correlation presented. Th
important question
lifted particles related
and gravity with to thisPearson
a high correlation thatfactor
correlation should be asked
is presented. ismost
The whether it
important question related to this correlation that should be asked is whether
effect of the physics of the phenomenon or is it the effect of a defined numerical mit is the effect
of the physics of the phenomenon or is it the effect of a defined numerical model? This
This should certainly be noted in the future.
should certainly be noted in the future.

Figure 17. Number of lifted particles in different gravity conditions.

Figure 17. Number of lifted particles in different gravity conditions.
The results obtained using the prepared DEM model show that it is possible to use this
type of simulation for the qualitative assessment of the interaction between the machine
and The resultsunder
soil particles obtained
varioususing the prepared
gravitational DEM
conditions. model
However, the show that
approach it is possible
presented
this
is a type of simulation
very simple model thatfor
canthe
onlyqualitative
be used for aassessment of the interaction between th
preliminary assessment.
chine and soil particles under various gravitational conditions. However, the app
6. Conclusions
presented is a very simple model that can only be used for a preliminary assessme
As presented in the article, it is possible to effectively model, under various grav-
itational conditions, simple phenomena concerning the interaction of soil and machine.
6.OfConclusions
course, more accurate models are necessary, but this article was intended to show
howAs quickly and easily
presented in you
the can develop
article, it isdevices at antoearly,
possible conceptual
effectively stage. under
model, The article
various g
also briefly describes what problems may arise when idealized shapes are used in the
tional conditions, simple phenomena concerning the interaction of soil and mach
simulation and the experimental model is always characterized by a certain imperfection.
course,
While it more
is not aaccurate
problem tomodels
generate are necessary,
particles but this
with a variety article generated
of randomly was intended
shapes, to show
quickly and easily
when preparing you can
machine develop
elements in thedevices at an early,
CAD software, conceptual
designers always aimstage. The artic
for the
most perfect
briefly shape.
describes In order
what not to complicate
problems may arisethe whenprocess of creating
idealized 3D models,
shapes are usedonein the s
option is the very dynamic development of 3D printing techniques, which
tion and the experimental model is always characterized by a certain imperfection. in many cases
already allow for obtaining perfect shapes. There is still a need to develop and refine these
ittypes
is not a problem to generate particles with a variety of randomly generated s
of models in order to accurately determine the behavior under different gravitational
when preparing
conditions, but it ismachine elements
a great hope in the CAD
and an opportunity software,
for the future. designers always aim
most perfect shape. In order not to complicate the process of creating 3D models, o
tion is the very dynamic development of 3D printing techniques, which in many
already allow for obtaining perfect shapes. There is still a need to develop and refin
types of models in order to accurately determine the behavior under different g
Micromachines 2021, 12, 1404 14 of 14

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, P.M.; methodology, P.M. and D.B.; simulation, P.M.;
experimental investigation, D.B.; writing—original draft preparation, P.M.; writing—review and
editing, D.B.; visualization, P.M. and D.B.; supervision, P.M. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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