Republic of the Philippines

Dr. Emilio B. Espinosa, Sr. Memorial State College of Agriculture and Technology
( (Masbate State College)
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Cabitan, Mandaon, Masbate

Module 3
The Teacher as a Curriculum Designer

Objectives:

1. Identify the fundamentals of curriculum designing.

2. Appreciate the task of designing a curriculum.
3. Identify some familiar curriculum designs and approaches to the design
4. Analyze the approaches in the light of how these are applied in the school setting.
5. Define the curriculum mapping and curriculum quality
6. Explain the benefits of curriculum mapping and curriculum quality audit
7. Familiarize oneself of some examples of curricular maps.

Module Overview
A curriculum as a planned sequence of learning experiences should be at the heart and mind of every
teacher. Every teacher as a curricularist should be involved in designing a curriculum. In fact, it is one of
the teachers’ roles as a curricularist. As such, you will be part of the intellectual journey of your learners.
You will be providing them the necessary experiences that will enable the learner what you intend them to
learn.
As a curriculum designer this task was not given much attention in the past. Every single day, a teacher
designs a lesson or utilizes a curriculum that has been made and was previously written. Designing a
curriculum is a very challenging task. It is here where the style and creativity if the teacher come in. Thus
this module will provide the necessary concepts and activities that you as a teacher can refer to as you
prepare yourself to be a curriculum designer.

Learning Content
1. Fundamentals of Curriculum Design
2. Approaches to Curriculum Designing
3. Curriculum Mapping and Curriculum Quality Audit

LESSON 1 Fundamentals of Curriculum Design

ACTIVITY
What are the parts of a lesson plan? Complete the word web below.

Lesson
Plan

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ANALYSIS
1. What were the parts of your definition of lesson plan?
2. Where did you get the parts you listed?
3. Which part comes first? Why?
4. Which part is at the end? Why?
5. What type of lesson plan have you made before?

ABSTRACTION
Building on Peter Oliva’s 10 Axioms for Curriculum Designers
As we begin to discuss about curriculum designing, all teachers need to know the different axioms or
theorems regarding curriculum as presented by Gordon, W. Taylor R., and Oliva, P. in 2019. These
axioms will be used to guide curricularist in designing a curriculum. Axioms are principles that
practitioners as curriculum designer can use as guidelines or a frame of reference.
Ten Axioms About Curriculum That Teachers Need as Reminders
1. Curriculum change is inevitable, necessary and desirable.
Earlier it was stated that one of the characteristics of curriculum is its being dynamic. Because of
this, teachers should respond to the changes that occur in schools and in their context. Societal
development and knowledge revolution come so fast that the need to address the changing
conditions requires new curriculum designs.

2. Curriculum is a product of its time. A relevant curriculum should respond to changes brought
about by current social forces, philosophical positions, psychological principles, new knowledge,
and educational reforms. This is also called timeliness.

3. Curriculum changes made earlier can exist concurrently with newer curriculum changes. A
revision in a curriculum starts and ends slowly. More often, curriculum is gradually phased in and
phased out, thus the changes that occur can coexist and oftentimes overlap for long periods of
time.

4. Curriculum change depends on people who will implement the change. Teachers who will
implement the curriculum should be involved in its development, hence should know how to
design a curriculum. Because the teachers are the implementers of the curriculum, it is best that
they should design and own the changes. This will ensure an effective and long lasting.

5. Curriculum development is a cooperative group activity. Group decisions in some aspects of

curriculum development are suggested. Consultations with stakeholders when possible will add to
a sense of ownership. Even learners should participate in some aspect of curriculum designing.
Any significant change in the curriculum should involve a broad range of stakeholders to gain
their understanding, support and input.

6. Curriculum development is a decision-making process made from choices of alternatives. A

curriculum developer or designer must decide what contents to teach, philosophy or point of view
to support, how to provide for multicultural groups, what methods or strategies and what type of
evaluation to use.

7. Curriculum development is an ongoing process. Continuous monitoring, examination, evaluation

and improvement of curricula are to be considered in the design of the curriculum. As the needs
of learners change, as society changes and as new knowledge and technology appear, the
curriculum must change.

8. Curriculum development is more effective if it is a comprehensive process, rather than a

“piecemeal”. A curriculum design should be based on a careful plan, should clearly establish
intended outcomes, support resources and needed time available and should equip teaching staff
pedagogically.

9. Curriculum development is more effective when it follows a systematic process. A curriculum

design is composed of desired outcomes, subject matter content complemented with references,
set of procedures, needed materials and resources and evaluation procedure which can be
places in a matrix.

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 10. Curriculum development starts from where the curriculum is. Curriculum planners and designers
should begin with existing curriculum. An existing design is a good starting point for curriculum.
An existing design is a good starting point for any teacher who plans to enhance and enrich a
curriculum.

Building upon the ideas of Oliva, let us continue learning how to design a curriculum by identifying
its components. For most curricula the major components or elements are answers to the
following questions:

1. What learning outcomes need to be achieved? (Intended Learning Outcomes)

2. What content should be included to achieve the learning outcomes? (Subject Matter)
3. What learning experiences and resources should be employed? (Teaching-Learning
Methods)
4. How will the achieved learning outcomes be measured? (Assessment of Achieved Learning
Outcomes)
Elements or Components of a Curriculum Design
There are many labels or names for curriculum design. Some would call it a syllabus or a lesson
plan. Some would call it a unit plan or a course design. Whatever is the name of the design, the common
components for all of them are almost the same. However, some schools, institutions or departments may
add other minor parts or trimmings to the design.
Let us take the Lesson Plan as a miniscule curriculum. A lesson plan or teaching guide includes
(1) Intended Learning Outcomes (ILO) or the Desired Learning Outcome (DLO) formerly labelled as
behavioral objectives, (2) Subject Matter or Content, (3) Teaching and Learning Methods and (4)
Assessment Evaluation. Each of these components or elements is described below.
I. Behavioral Objectives or Intended Learning Outcomes

Begin with the end in view. The objectives or intended learning outcomes are the reasons for
undertaking the learning lesson from the student’s point view; it is desired learning outcome that is to be
accomplished in a particular learning episode, engaged in by the learners under the guidance of the
teacher. As a curriculum designer, the beginning of the learning journey is the learning outcomes to be
achieved. In this way, both the learner and the teacher are guided by what to accomplish.
The behavioral objectives, intended learning outcomes or desired learning outcomes are
expressed in action words found in the revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of Objectives (Andersen and
Krathwohl, 2003) for the development of the cognitive skills. For the affective skills, refer to the taxonomy
made by Krathwohl and for the psychomotor domain by Simpson.
The statement should be SMART: Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Result-oriented and Time-
bound. For a beginner, it would help if you provide the Condition, Performance and Extent or Level of
Performance in the statement of the intended learning outcomes.
For example, if a lesson intends the students to identify the parts of a simple flower as stated in
the desired learning outcomes, then students should have identified the parts of a simple flower, at the
end of the lesson.
Sometimes the phrase intended learning outcomes is used to refer to the anticipated results after
completing the planned activity or lesson. In framing learning outcomes, it is good practice to:
1. Express each outcome in terms of what successful students will be able to do. For example,
rather than stating Students will be able to explain the reason why…it should be: ‘Students must
have explained the reasons why..’ This helps students to focus on what they have to achieve as
learning. It will also help curricularists devise appropriate assessment tasks.
2. Include different kinds of outcomes. The most common are cognitive objectives (learning facts,
theories, formulae, principles, etc.) and performance outcomes (learning how to carry out
procedures, calculations and processes, which typically include gathering information and
communicating results.) In some contexts, affective outcomes are important too (for developing
attitudes or values, e.g. those required as a person and for a particular profession.)

II.Content / Subject Matter

The content of the lesson or unit is the topic or subject matter that will be covered. In selecting
content, you should bear in mind the following principles in addition to those mentioned about the content
in previous lesson:
 Subject matter should be relevant to the outcomes of the curriculum. An effective curriculum is
purposive and clearly focused on the planned learning outcomes.

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  Subject matter should be appropriate to the level of the lesson or unit. An effective curriculum is
progressive, leading students towards building on previous lessons. Contents which are too basic
or too advanced for the development levels of learners make students either bored or baffled and
affect their motivation to learn.
 Subject matter should be up-to-date and, if possible, should reflect current knowledge and
concepts.
 Subject matter should follow the principles of B.A.S.I.C.S.- balance, articulation, sequence,
integration, continuity,

III. References

The reference follows the content. It tells where the content or subject matter has been taken.
The reference may be a book, a module, or any publication. It must bear the author of the material and if
possible, the publications. Some examples are given below.

1. Project Wild (1992) K to 12 Activity Guide, An Interdisciplinary, Supplementary Conservation and

Environmental Education Program. Council of Environmental Education, Bethesda, MD.
2. Shipman, James and Jerry Wilson, et.al (2009). An Introduction to Physical Science. Houghton
Mifflin Co. Boston MA.
3. Romo, Salvador B. (2013). Horticulture an Exploratory Course. Lorimar Publishing Inc. Quezon
City.
4. Bilbao, Purita P. and Corpuz, Brenda B. et al (2012). The Teaching Profession 2 nd Ed. Lorimar
Publishing Inc. Quezon City

IV. Teaching and Learning Methods

These are the activities where the learners derive experiences. It is always good to keep in mind
the teaching strategies that students will experience (lectures, laboratory classes, fieldwork etc.) and
make them learn. The teaching-learning methods should allow cooperation, competition as well as
individualism or independent learning among students. For example:

 Cooperative learning activities allow students to work together. Students are guided to learn on
their own to find solutions to their problems. The role of the teachers is to guide the learners.
Democratic process is encouraged, and each one contributes to the success of learning.
Students learn from each other in ways. Group projects and activities considerably enhance the
curriculum.
 Independent learning activities allow learners to develop personal responsibility. The degree of
independence to learn how to learn is enhanced. This strategy is more appropriate for fast
learners.
 Competitive activities, where students will test their competencies against another in a healthy
manner, allow learners to perform to their maximum. Most successful individuals in their adult
life are competitive, even in early schooling. They mostly become the survivors in a very
competitive world.
 The use of various delivery modes to provide learning experiences is recommended. Online
learning and similar modes are increasingly important in many curricula, but these need to be
planned carefully to be effective.

There are some examples of very simple teaching-learning methods with detailed steps that you
can start using as you begin teaching.
Some Behaviorist Teaching Learning Methods

A. Direct Instructions: Barak Rosenshine Model (in Ornstein & Hunkins, 2018)
Detailed Steps:
1. State of Learning Objectives/Outcomes: Begin lesson with a short statement of objective or
desired lesson learning outcomes.
2. Review: Introduce short review of previous or prerequisite learning.
3. Present new materials. Present materials in small, sequenced manner.
4. Explain. Give clear and detailed instructions and explanations.
5. Practice. Provide active practice for all students.
6. Guide. Guide students during initial practice; or provide seatwork activities.
7. Check for understanding. Ask several questions, assess students’ comprehension.
8. Provide Feedback. Provide systematic feedback and corrections.
9. Assess Performance. Obtain student success rate of 80 percent or more during practice
session.

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 10. Review and test. Provide for spaced review and testing.

B. Guided Instructions: Madeline Hunter Model (in Ornstein & Hunkins, 2018)
1. Review. Focus on previous lesson, ask students to summarize main points.
2. Anticipatory set. Focus student’s attention on new lesson. Stimulate interest in the new
materials.
3. Objective. State explicitly what is to be learned; state rationale or how it will be useful.
4. Input. Identify needed knowledge and skills for learning new lesson; present materials in
sequenced steps.
5. Modeling. Provide several examples or demonstrations throughout the lesson.
6. Check for understanding. Monitor students’ work before they become involved in lesson
activities, check to see they understand directions or tasks.
7. Guided practice. Periodically ask students questions and check their answers. Again monitor
understanding.
8. Independent Practice. Assign independent work or practice when it is reasonably sure that
students can work on their own with understanding and minimal frustration.

C. Mastery Learning; JH Block and Lorin Anderson Model (in Ornstein & Hunkins, 2018)
1. Clarify. Explain to students what they are expected to learn.
2. Inform. Teach the lesson, relying on the whole group instruction.
3. Pretest. Give a formative quiz on a no fault-basis, students can check their own paper.
4. Group. Based on results, divide the class into mastery and non-mastery groups (80% is
considered mastery)
5. Enrich and correct. Give enrichment instruction to mastery group. Give corrective
(practice/drill) to non-mastery group.
6. Monitor. Monitor student progress; vary amount of teacher time and support for each group
based on group size and performance.
7. Posttest. Give a summary test for non-mastery group.
8. Assess performance. At least 75% of the students should achieve mastery by the
summative test.
9. Reteach. If not, repeat procedures; starting with corrective instructions (small study groups,
individual tutoring, alternative instructional materials, extra homework, reading materials,
practice and drill.)

D. Systematic Instructions; Thomas Good and Jere Brophy (in Ornstein and Hunkings, 2018)
1. Review. Review concepts and skills related to homework, provide review exercises.
2. Development. Promote students understanding, provide controlled practice.
3. Assess comprehension. Ask questions, provide controlled practice.
4. Seatwork. Provide uninterrupted seatwork; get everyone involved, sustain momentum.
5. Accountability. Check the students work.
6. Homework. Assign homework regularly; provide review problems.
7. Special reviews. Provide weekly reviews to check and further maintain and enhance
learning.
Teaching-Learning Environment
In the choice of the teaching learning methods, equally important is the teaching learning
environment. Brian Castaldi in 1987 suggeste four criteria in the provision of the environment or learning
spaces in designing a curriculum. These criteria include (1) adequacy, (2) suitability, (3) efficiency and (4)
economy.
1. Adequacy – This refers to the actual learning space or classrooms. Is the classroom large enough
for student’s mobility for class interaction and collaborative work. Is there enough light and
ventilation so that the learning space is conducive, and safe for learning? To provide learning
condition that will provide opportunities that will develop the 21 st century skills, there must be a
provision for the utilization of technology for teaching and learning and the use of the cyberspace.
2. Sustainability – This relates to planned activities. Sustainability should consider chronological and
developmental ages of learners. Also to be considered will be the socio-cultural, economic even
religious background of the learners.
3. Efficiency – This refers to operational and instructional effectiveness.
4. Economy – This refers to cost effectiveness. How much is needed to provide instructional
materials?
VI. Assessment / Evaluation
Learning occurs most effectively when students receive feedback, i.e. when they receive
information on what they have already (and have not) learned. The process by which this information is
generated is assessment. It has three main forms:

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  Self-assessment, through which students learn to monitor and evaluate their own learning. This
should be a significant element in the curriculum because we aim to produce graduates who are
appropriately reflective and self-critical.
 Peer assessment, in which students provide feedback on each other’s learning. This can be
viewed as an extension of self-assessment and presupposes trust and mutual respect. Research
suggests that students can learn each other’s work as reliably as staff.
 Teacher assessment, in which the teacher prepares and administers tests and gives feedback on
the student’s performance.
Assessment may be formative (providing feedback to help the student learn more) or summative
(expressing a judgment on the student’s achievement by reference to state criteria). Many assessment
tasks involve an element of both, e.g. an assignment that is marked and returned to the student with
detailed comments.
Summative assessment usually involves the allocation of marks or grades. This helps the teacher
make decisions about the progress or performance of the students.
Students usually learn more by understanding the strengths and weaknesses of their work by
knowing the mark or grade given to it. For this reason, summative assessment tasks (including unseen
examinations) should include an element of formative feedback, if possible.
Applications of the Fundamental Components to Other Curriculum Designs
While our example refers only to designing a lesson plan which is a mini curriculum, similar
components will also be used in making a syllabus for teaching in higher education courses or other
curricular projects. Based on the curriculum models we have learned, the fundamentals components
include the following:
Major components of a Course Design or Syllabus
1. Intended Outcomes (or Objectivies)
2. Content / Subject Matter (with reference)
3. Methods / Strategies (with needed resources)
4. Evaluation (means of assessment)
Simply put, curriculum design is the organization of curriculum components. All other additional
components are trimmings that each designer may add. This may be institutional template or suggested
by the other curriculum experts or required by educational agencies like the Department of Education,
Commission on Higher Education, Accrediting Agencies, Professional Regulation Commission to achieve
a specific purpose of such agency.

APPLICATION
Activity 1: Finding an Example
Instructions:
1. Secure a copy of a sample Lesson Plan.
2. Using the matrix given below, analyze the sample you secured and give your suggestions based
on the principles and concepts you learned in this module.

Components Copy from the Sample Your comment/suggestion

Title of the Lesson Plan

Intended Learning
Outcomes/Objectives

Content/Subject Matter

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 Methods/Strategies

Evaluation/Assessment

Answer briefly:

1. Which one principle of Oliva is reflected in the Lesson Plan? Explain briefly.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

2. If you were to improve the design, what will you add, or subtract or modify? Write your re-
design suggestion.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

Activity 2
Which of the following do you clearly understand? Answer Yes or No to the questions that follow.

Questions Answer
As a curricularist and curriculum designer… Yes or No
1. Do you think curriculum change is
inevitable?
2. Does curriculum change not
consider the existing one?
3. Should curriculum be designed only
by one person?
4. Should any change in curriculum
include an evaluation process?
5. Does curriculum change mean total
overhaul?
6. Should learning outcomes be
considered first before the content?
7. Should teaching methods consider
only the expertise of the teacher?
8. Are time tested methods like
inductive and lecture no longer
useful?
9. Should contents be updated and
relevant?
10. Is there only one design that a
teacher should know?

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 If you got 10 correct answers out of 10 items, Congratulations! You are now ready to move to the
next lesson. If otherwise, you need to review this lesson. Good luck.

Activity 3
Instructions: Provide answers to the incomplete sentences.
After reading, this lesson on fundamentals of curriculum designing or crafting a curriculum.

1. I realized that
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
2. I feel that
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
3. I need to
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

LESSON 2 Approaches to Curriculum Designing

ACTIVITY
Write a short definition of the following terms:
1. Approaches
2. Curriculum Design –
3. Curriculum Models -
ANALYSIS
1. Where did you get your definition of the terms above?
2. Is Curriculum Design different from Curriculum Models? Why or why not?
3. Which is easier to define – Curriculum Design or Models?
Types of Curriculum Design Models
There are many ways of looking at curriculum and designing one. For our own purposes, let us focus on
the most widely used examples.

I. Subject-Centered Design

This is a curriculum design that focuses on the content of curriculum. The subject-
centered design corresponds mostly to textbook because textbooks are usually written based the
specific subject or course. Henry Morrison and William Harris are the few curricularists who firmly
believed in this design. As practiced, school hours are allocated to different school subjects such
as Science, Mathematics, Language, Social Studies, Physical Education and others. This is also
practiced in the Philippines, because a school day is divided into class period, a school year into
quarters or semester. Most of the schools using this kind of structure and curriculum design aim
for excellence in specific subject discipline content.

Subject-centered curriculum design has also some variations which are focused on the individual
subject, specific discipline and a combination of subjects or discipline which are a broad field or
interdisciplinary.

I.1.1. Subject Design. What subject are you teaching? What subject are taking? These
are two simple questions that the teacher and the learner can easily answer. It is
because they are familiar with the subject design curriculum.

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 Subject design curriculum is the oldest and so far the most familiar design for teachers,
parents and other laymen. According to the advocates, subject design has an advantage
because it is easy to deliver. Textbooks are written and support instructional materials are
commercially available. Teachers are familiar with the format, because they were educated
using also the design. In the Philippine educational system, the number of subjects in the
elementary education is fewer than in the secondary level. In college, the number of subjects
also differs according to the degree programs being pursued. For each subject, a curriculum
is being designed.

However, the drawback of this design is that sometimes, learning is so compartmentalized. It

stresses so much the content and forgets about students’ natural tendencies, interests and
experiences. The teacher becomes the dispenser of knowledge and the learners are simply
the empty vessel to receive the information or content from the teacher. This is a traditional
approach to teaching and learning.

1.2 Discipline design. This curriculum design model is related to the subject design.
However, while subject design centers only on the cluster of content, discipline design
focuses on academic disciplines. Discipline refers to specific knowledge learned through a
method which the scholars use to study a specific content in their fields. Students in history
should learn the subject matter like historians, students in biology should learn the subject
matter like historians, students in biology should learn how the biologist learn, and so with
students in mathematics, who should learn how mathematicians learn. In the same manner,
teachers should teach how the scholars in the discipline will convey the particular knowledge.

Discipline design model of curriculum is often used in college, but not in the elementary or
secondary levels. So from the subject-centered curriculum, curriculum moves higher to a
discipline when the students are more mature and are already moving towards their career
path or disciplines as science, mathematics, psychology, humanities, history and others.

1.3 Correlation design. Coming from a core, correlated curriculum design links separate
subject designs in order to reduce fragmentation. Subjects are related to one another and still
maintain their identity. For example, English literature and social studies correlate well in the
elementary level. In the two subjects, while history is being studied, different literary pieces
during the historical period are also being studied. The same is true when science becomes
the core, mathematics is related to it, as they are taken in chemistry, physics and biology.
Another example is literature as the core with art, music, history, geography related to it. To
use correlated design, teachers should come together and plan their lessons cooperatively.

1.4 Broad field design/interdisciplinary. Broad field design or interdisciplinary is a variation

of the subject-centered design. This design was made to cure the compartmentalization of
the separate subjects and integrate the contents that are related to one another. Thus
subjects such as geography, economics, political science, anthropology, sociology and
history are fused into one subject called social studies. Language arts will include grammar,
literature, linguistics, spelling and composition.

Sometimes called holistic curriculum, broad fields draw around themes and integration.
Interdisciplinary design is similar to thematic design, where a specific theme is identified and
all other subject areas revolve around the theme.

II. Learner-Centered Design

Among progressive educational psychologists, the learner is the center of the educative
process. This emphasis is very strong in the elementary level, however, more concern has
been placed on the secondary and even the tertiary levels. Although in high school, the
subject or content has become the focus and in the college level, the discipline is the center,
both levels still recognize the importance of the learner in the curriculum.
Here are some examples of curriculum designs which are learner-centered.
II.1 Child-centered design. This design is often attributed to the influence of John Dewey,
Rouseau, Pestallozi and Froebel. This curriculum design is anchored on the needs and
interests of the child. The learner is not considered a passive individual but one who
engages with his/her environment. One learns by doing. Learners actively create,
construct meanings and understanding as viewed by the constructivists. In the child-
centered design, learners interact with the teachers and the environment, thus there is a
collaborative effort on both sides to plan lessons, select content and do activities
together. Learning is a product of the child’s interaction with the environment.

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 II.2 Experience-centered design. This design is similar to the child-centered design.
Although the focus remains to be the child, experience-centered design believes that the
interests and needs of learners cannot be pre-planned. Instead, experiences of the
learners become the starting point of the curriculum, thus the school environment is left
open and free. Learners are made to choose from various activities that the teacher
provides. The learners are empowered to shape their own learning from the different
opportunities given by the teacher. In a school where experience-centered curriculum is
provided, different learning centers are found, time is flexible and children are free to
make options. Activities revolve around different emphasis such as touching, feeling,
imagining, constructing, relating and others. The emergence of multiple intelligence
theory blends well with experience-centered design curriculum.

II.3 Humanistic design. The key influence in this curriculum design is Abraham Maslow and
Carl Rogers. Maslow’s theory of self-actualization explains that a person who achieves
this level is accepting of self, others and nature; is simple, spontaneous and natural; is
open to different experiences; possesses empathy and sympathy towards the less
fortunate among the many other. The person can achieve this state of self-actualization
later in life but has to start the process while still in school. Carl Rogers, on the other
hand, believed that a person can enhance self-directed learning by improving self-
understanding, the basic attitude to guide behavior.
In a humanistic curriculum design, the development of self is the ultimate objective of
learning. It stresses the whole person and the integration of thinking, feeling and doing. It
considers the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains to be interconnected and
must be addressed in the curriculum. It stresses the development of positive self-concept
and interpersonal skill.
III. Problem-Centered Design

Generally, problem-centered design draws on social problems, needs, interest and abilities of the
learners. Various problems are given emphasis. There are thpse that center on life situations,
contemporary life problems, areas of living and many others. In this curriculum, content cuts
across subject boundaries and must be based on the needs, concerns and abilities of the
students. Two examples are given for the problem-centered design curriculum.

III.1. Life-situations Design. What makes the design unique is that the contents are
organized in ways that allow students to clearly view problem areas. It uses the past and the
present experiences of learners as a means to analyze the basic areas of living. As a starting
point, the pressing immediate problems of the society and the student’s existing concerns are
utilized. Based on Herbert Spencer’s curriculum writing, his emphasis were activities that
sustain life, aid in rearing children, maintain the individual’s social and political relations and
enhance leisure, tasks and feelings. The connection of subject matter to real situations
increases the relevance of the curriculum.

III.2. Core problem design. Another example of problem-centered design is core design. It
centers on general education and the problems are based on the common human activities.
The central focus of the core design includes common needs, problems and concerns of the
learners. Popularized by Faunce and Bossing in 1959, it presented ways on how to proceed
using core design of a curriculum. These are the steps.

Step 1. Make group consensus on important problems.

Step 2. Develop criteria for selection of important problem.
Step 3. State and define the problem.
Step 4. Decide on areas of study, including class grouping.
Step 5. List the needed information for resources.
Step 6. Obtain and organize information.
Step 7. Analyze and interpret the information.
Step 8. State the tentative conclusions.
Step 9. Present a report to the class individually or by group.
Step 10. Evaluate the conclusions.
Step 11. Explore other avenues for further problem solving.

These are some examples of curriculum designs. There are many more which are emerging
and those that have evolved in the past. The example given may be limited, however, for our
purposes, they can very well present curriculum designs.

Table 1: Overview of the Major Curriculum Designs (Ornstein A & Hunkins, F, 2018)

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 Design Emphasis Underlying Sources/Focus Spokesperson/
Philosophy Champion
Subject-Centered
Subject Design Separate Essentialism Science, Harris, Hutchins
subject Perenialism Knowledge
Broad-Fields Interdisciplinary Essentialism Science, Broudy, Dewey
Design subjects, Progressivism Knowledge
scholarly
discipline
Correlation Separate Progressivism Knowledge Alberty, Alberty
design subject, Essentialism
disciplines
linked but
identities
maintained
Learner-Centered
Child-centered Child’s needs Progressivism Child Dewey
Design and interest Kilpatrick
Parker
Experience- Child’s Progressivism Child Dewey, Rugg,
centered design experiences Shumaker
and needs
Humanistic Experiences, Reconstructionism Psychology, Combs,
design interest, needs Existentialism child, society Abraham
of a person and Maslow, Carl
group Rogers
Problem-centered design
Life-situation Life (social) Reconstructionism society Spencer
design problem
Transformatory Child, focus on Open system Post Society Slattery
(or becoming) society and the modernism
change world, all reals
of culture
Reconstructionist Child, the Open system Post Roth
design teacher, the modernism
world

Approaches to Curriculum Design Models

How will a particular design be approached by the teacher? After writing a curriculum based on
the specific design, let us see how a teacher will approach this. We will find out the utilization of the
example design.
Child or Learner-Centered Approach. This approach to curriculum design is based on the underlying
philosophy that the child or the learner is the center of the educational process. It means that the
curriculum is constructed based on the needs, interest, purposes and abilities of the learners. The
curriculum is also built upon the learner’s knowledge, skills, previous learnings and potentials.
From its design, how should a child-centered curriculum be approached? Let us consider these principles.
Principles of Child-centered Curriculum Approach
1. Acknowledge and respect the fundamental rights of the child
2. Make all activities revolve around the overall development of the learner.
3. Consider the uniqueness of every learner in a multicultural classroom.
4. Consider using differentiated instruction or teaching.
5. Provide a motivating supportive learning environment for all learners.

The child-centered approach is illustrated in the example below:

School X is anchored on the theory of multiple intelligences in all curricular and co-curricular
activities. Every classroom provides activity centers where children can learn on their own with the
different learning resource materials. Learners can just choose which learning center to engage
learner to be honed. It also allows learning how to learn, hence will develop independence. The
teacher acts as guide for every learner. The learner sets the goal that can be done within the frame of
time.

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Subject-Centered Approach. This is anchored on a curriculum design which prescribes separate distinct
subjects for every educational level: basic education. Higher education or vocational-technical education.
This approach considers the following principles.

1. The primary focus is the subject matter.

2. The emphasis is on bits and pieces of information which may be detached from life.
3. The subject matter serves as a means to identifying problems of living.
4. Learning means accumulation of content, or knowledge.
5. Teacher’s role is to dispense the content.
Example of subject-centered approach is given below.

In another setting, school Y aims to produce the best graduates in the school district. Every learner
must excel in all academic subjects to be on top of every academic competition. The higher level of
cognitive intelligence, the better the learner. Hence the focus of learning is a mastery of the subject matter
in terms of content. Every student is expected to be always on top in terms of mastery of discipline.
Memorization and drill are important learning skills. The school gives emphasis to intellectual
development and sets aside emotional, psychomotor and even values development. Success means
mastery of the content.
Problem-Centered Approach. This approach is based on a design which assumes that in the process of
living, children experience problems. Thus, problem solving enables the learners to become increasingly
able to achieve complete or total development as individuals.
This approach is characterized by the following views and beliefs:

1. The learners are capable of directing of directing and guiding themselves in resolving problems,
thus developing every learner to be independent.
2. The learners are prepared to assume their civic responsibilities through direct participation in
different activities.
3. The curriculum leads the learners in the recognition of concerns and problems in seeking
solutions. Learners are problem solvers themselves.
An example of the problem-centered approach is presented below:
School Z believes that a learner should be trained to solve real life problems that come about because of
the needs, interests and abilities of the learners. Problems persistent in life and society that affect daily
living are also considered. Most of the school activities revolve around finding solutions to problems like
poverty, drug problems, climate change, natural calamities and many more. Case study and practical
work are the teaching strategies that are utilized. Problem-centered approach has become popular in
many schools.
We have given examples of curriculum design and the corresponding approaches. Again, the choice of
the design is influenced by philosophical and psychological beliefs of the designer. It is very important that
as a curricularist, you will be able to understand the different design models and how to approach each
one.
APPLICATION
Activity 1
Get a hold of materials about the K to 12 and answer the following:
1. What kind of curriculum design influence mostly the K to 12 Curriculum? A) Subject-Centered? B)
Learner-Centered C) Problem-Centered? (You may have more than one answer.
2. Cite an Illustrative example that relates to your choice.
3. Place your answer on a matrix like the one below.

Type of Curriculum Design in K to 12 Illustrative Example

Subject-Centered Design/Approach

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 Learner-Centered Approach

Problem-centered Approach

Activity 2
Identify what kind of design and approach are utilized in the following descriptions.
_____________1. Only students who master the subject content can succeed.
_____________2. Students are encouraged to work together to find answers to their task.
_____________3. No learner is left-behind in reading, writing and arithmetic.
_____________4. School means survival of the fittest.
_____________5. Teacher extends class because children have not mastered the lesson.
_____________6. Lesson deals with finding solution to everyday problem.
_____________7. Differentiated instruction should be utilized for different ability groups.
_____________8. Accumulation of knowledge is of primary importance.
_____________9. Learning how to learn is observable among students.
_____________10. Students are problem-finders and solution-givers.

Activity 3
Choose one statement and make a reflection about it. What do you think and feel about it?
Statement No 1 – ‘Schools that approach the curriculum as subject-centered, make robots out of the
students”
Statement No 2 – “In schools where child-centeredness is approached, discipline is weak.
Statement No. 3 “Students are too young to solve life problems, why should they do problem solving in
school?”

Lesson 3 Curriculum Mapping and Curriculum Quality Audit

Learning Outcomes
1. Define curriculum mapping and curriculum quality audit.
2. Explain the benefits of curriculum mapping and curriculum quality audit.
3. Familiarize oneself of some examples of curriculum maps.

ACTIVITY
Using a graphic organizer, create a curriculum map according to how you understand it.

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ANALYSIS
1. What graphic organizer did you use to explain curriculum map as you understand it?
2. What were the parts of the curriculum map you have made?
3. Where did you get the idea of the parts of the curriculum map you have made?
4. Was it easy to create a curriculum map? Why or why not?
Curriculum Mapping
Curriculum mapping is a model for designing, refining, upgrading and reviewing the curriculum resulting in
a framework that provides form, focus and function (hale and Dunlap, 2010). It is a reflective process that
helps teachers understand what has been taught in class, how it has been taught and how learning
outcomes are assessed. This process was introduced by Heidi Hayes Jacobs in 2004 in her book Getting
Results with Curriculum Mapping (ASCD, 2004). This approach is an ongoing process or “work-in-
progress”. It is not a one time initiative but a continuing action, which involves the teacher and other
stakeholders, who have common concerns. Curriculum mapping can be done by teachers alone, a group
of teachers teaching the same subject, the department, the whole school or district or the whole
educational system.
Some curricularists would describe curriculum mapping as making a map to success. There are common
questions that are asked by different stakeholders, like teachers, colleagues, parents, school officials and
the community as well. These questions may include:
1. What do my students learn?
2. What do they study in the first quarter?
3. What are they studying in the school throughout the year?
4. Do my co-teachers who handle the same subject, cover the same content? Achieve the same
outcomes? Use similar strategies?
5. How do I help my students understand the connections between my subjects and other subjects
within the year? Next year?
Curriculum mapping, may be able to answer these questions above. Furthermore, mapping will produce a
curriculum map, which is a very functional tool in curriculum development.
Benefits of Curriculum Mapping
1. Curriculum Mapping ensures alignment of the desired learning outcomes, learning activities and
assessment of learning.
2. Curriculum mapping addresses the gaps or repetitions in the curriculum. It reveals if certain
program goals or learning outcomes are not adequately covered or overly emphasized in the
current curriculum.
3. Curriculum mapping verifies, clarifies and establishes alignment between classrooms and
assessed in their learning.
4. The curriculum maps visually show important elements of the curriculum and how they contribute
to student learning.
5. Curriculum mapping connects all initiatives from instruction, pedagogies, assessment and
professional development. It facilitates the integration of cross-curricular skills.
Curriculum Mapping Process
There are many ways of doing things according to what outcome one needs to produce. This is also true
with curriculum mapping. However, whatever outcome (map) will be made, there are suggested steps to
follow.
Example A.
1. Make a matrix or a spread sheet.

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 2. Place a timeline that you need to cover. (one quarter, one semester, one year) This should be
dependent on time frame of a particular curriculum that was written.
3. Enter the intended learning outcomes, skills needed to be taught or achieved at the end of the
teaching.
4. Enter in the same matrix the content areas/subject areas to be covered.
5. Align and name each resource available such textbooks, workbooks, module next to subject
areas.
6. Enter the teaching-learning methods to be used to achieve the outcomes.
7. Align and enter the assessment procedure and tools to the intended learning outcomes, content
areas and resources.
8. Circulate the map among all involved personnel for their inputs.
9. Revise and refine map based on suggestions and distribute to all concerned.
You will find Example A as a component of an OBE-inspired syllabus for higher education. However, this
can be modified for basic education to serve the specific purpose as you will see in some maps.

Example B. (For a degree program in college) *

1. Make a matrix or a spreadsheet.
2. Identify the degree or program outcomes (ex. BEEd or BSED)
3. Identify the subjects or courses under the degree (GenEd, ProfEd and Major for BSEd)
4. List the subjects along the vertical cells of the matrix in a logical or chronological order.
5. List the degree program outcomes along the horizontal cell (use code as PO1, PO2…if outcomes
are too long to fit in the cell) PO means Program Outcomes
6. Cross the subject and the Outcome, and determine if such subject accomplishes the outcomes as
either Learner(L), Performed (P) or given Opportunity (O). Place the code in the corresponding
cell.
7. Fill up all cells.
8. After accomplishing the map, use it as a guide for all teachers teaching the course for students to
complete the degree in four years.
The Curriculum Map
Curriculum maps are visual timelines that outline desired learning outcomes to be achieved, contents,
skills and values taught, instructional time, assessment to be used and the overall student movement
towards the attainment of the intended outcomes. Curricular maps may be simple or elaborate that can be
used by an individual teacher, a department, the whole school or educational system. A map is geared to
a school calendar.
Curriculum maps provide quality control of what are taught in schools to maintain excellence, efficiency
and effectiveness. It is intended to improve instruction and maintain quality of education that all
stakeholders need to be assured of.
Sometimes, parents and teachers would ask questions like: “Why is my friend’s son studying decimals in
Mr. Bernardo’s class and my own son is not studying the same in Miss Julia’s class when the are of the
same grade level?” “Why do some of my students recognize the parts of speech while others are totally
lost?”
Parents, teachers and the whole educational community can look at the curriculum map to see that
intended outcomes and content covered. A map can reassure stakeholders specific information for pacing
and alignment of the subject horizontally or vertically. Courses that are not correctly aligned will allow
teachers to quickly assess the mastery of the skills in the previous grade, to avoid unnecessary
reteaching.
Horizontal alignment, called sometimes as “pacing guide” will make all teachers, teaching the same
subject in a grade level follow the same timeline and accomplishing the same learning outcomes. This is
necessary for state-mandated, standard-based assessment that we have in schools. Vertical alignment,
will see to it that concept development which may be in hierarchy or in spiral form does not overlap but
building from a simple to more complicated concept and skills. Alignment, either vertical or horizontal, will
also develop interdisciplinary connections among teachers and students, between and among courses.
Teachers can verify that skills and content are addressed in other courses or to higher levels, thus making
learning more relevant.
A curriculum map is always a work in progress, that enables the teacher or the curriculum review team to
create and recreate the curriculum. It provides a good information for modification of curriculum, changing
of standards and competencies in order to find ways to build connections in the elements of the curricula.
Example of a Curriculum Map

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Here are two examples of a curriculum map. Sample A is for Basic Education and Sample B is for College
Level.
Example A: Excerpt from DepEd Curriculum Guide for Science 3 shows a sample of a map for Quarter 1
and 2. A column for Code was not included.
ELEMENTARY SCIENCE GRADE 3
Note: For Quarter 2, there are still two major content which 3. Living Things 3.1 Plants and 4. Heredity:
Inheritance and Variation

Content Content Performance Learning Learning

Standards Standards Competency Materials
Grade 3 – Matter
FIRST QUARTER / FIRST GRADING PERIOD
The learner should be
able to…..
Describe the different
objects based on their
The Learners
The learners characteristics (e.g.
demonstrate
should be able Shape, Weight, Learning Guide in
understanding
to…. Volume, Ease or Science and
of …… ways
Group Flow) Health: Mixtures
1. Properties of sorting
common Classify objects and
1.1 materials and
objects found materials as solid, BEAM – Grade 3
Characteristic describing
at home in liquid and gas based Unit 4 Materials
s them as solid,
school on some observable LG- Science 3
liquid or gas
according to characteristics Materials – Module
based on
solids, liquids Describe ways on the 1
observable
and gas. proper use and
properties
handling of solid,
liquid and gas found
at home and in
school.
Describe changes in BEAM –G3 Unit 3
Investigate the materials based on materials –
different the effect of Distance learning
Effects of
Changes that changes in temperature Module
temperature
materials undergo materials as 4.1 Solid to liquid
on materials
affected by 4.2 Liquid to solid BEAM G3 Unit 3
temperature 4.3 Liquid to gas Materials Module
4.4 Solid to gas 44-49

Sample A1 – Science Curriculum

Qt G3 G4 G5 G6 G7 G8 G9 G10
r
1 Matter Matter Matter Matter Matter Force, Living Earth and
Motion, Things space
Energy and Their
Environm
ent
2 Living Living Living Living Living Earth and Matter Force,
Things Things Things Things Things space Motion,
and Their and Their and Their and Their and Their Energy
Environm Environm Environm Environm Environm
ent ent ent ent ent
3 Force, Force, Force, Force, Force, Matter Earth and Living
Motion, Motion, Motion, Motion, Motion, space Things
Energy Energy Energy Energy Energy and Their
Environm
ent
4 Earth and Earth and Earth and Earth and Earth and Living Force, Matter
space space space space space Things Motion,
and Their Energy
Environm
ent

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Sample B – Curriculum Map for Bachelor of Elementary Education (Professional Education Courses)

Outcomes PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 P08

Sample
Subjects
Child Dev P L L O L O O O
Facilitating
Human P P L O L O L O
Learning
Social
P L L O L O L O
Dimensions
Teaching
P P P P P O P P
Profession
Principles of
P P P P L O P O
Teaching
Assessment of
P P P P L O P O
Learning
Educational
P P P P L O P O
Technology
Curriculum
P P P P O O P P
Development
Developmental
P P P P O O P O
Reading
Field Study P P O P O P P P
Practice P P P P P P P P

Legend
L- Learned outcomes (knowledge, skills, values) / outcomes achieved in the subject
P – Practice the learned outcomes (knowledge, skills, values)
O – Opportunity to learn and practice (opportunities to learn and practice knowledge, skills and values but
not taught formally)

Note:
1. Not all professional subjects are entered in the matrix.
2. Desired outcomes for the professional courses are:

P01 –Applied basic and higher 21st century skills

PO2 – Acquired deep understanding of the learning process
PO3 – Comprehended knowledge of the content they will teach
PO4 – Applied teaching process skills (curriculum designing, materials development, educational
assessment, teaching approaches)
PO5 – Facilitated learning of different types of learners in diverse learning environments
PO6 – Directed experiences in the field and classrooms (observation, teaching, assistance, practice
teaching)
PO7 – Demonstrated professional and ethical standards of the profession.
PO8 – Demonstrated creative and innovative thinking and practice of alternative teaching approaches

APPLICATION
Activity 1
1. Using the Sample A1 for Science Curriculum Map, what knowledge and understanding have you
learned? Analyze the matrix and answer the questions that follow:
1.1 What are the main clusters of science content that students should learn from G3 to G10?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

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 __________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

1.2 How does science content progress from Grade 3 to Grade 10?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

1.3 When you look at and analyze the map, what summary ideas can you give?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

1.4 Science curriculum is spiral. How do you explain that in terms of what you see in the map?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

2. Using Sample B, analyze and answer the following questions briefly:

2.1 What is the meaning of “Practiced” with a black background for subject Teaching Profession
and PO1 “Applied basic and higher 21st century skills?”
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

2.2 What is your interpretation of the colored cell with “learned” that crossed between subject
Social Dimension and PO5, Facilitate Learning of different types of learners in diverse
learning environment?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

2.3 What does the colored “Opportunity” in the cell of the subject Curriculum Development that
crosses with the PO6 “Direct experience in the field and classroom (observations, teaching
assistance, practice teaching)?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

Activity 2
Answer the following questions.
1. Does curriculum mapping help a teacher understand what to accomplish within the period of
time?
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

2. Is curriculum map a permanent document?

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

3. Can a curriculum map help explain to parents what their children are learning in school?
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

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 _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

4. Is curriculum mapping a task of only one teacher?

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

5. Can a curriculum map as a tool be used in instructional supervision?

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

Activity 3
Reflect on the process of curriculum mapping and the sample curriculum map in this lesson. As a future
teacher, how will the process of mapping and the map as a tool help you in your profession?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

Curriculum Quality Audit

Curriculum Quality Audit is a form of curriculum mapping. It is a process of mapping the curricular
program or syllabus against established standards. This process is supported by Susan Rafe when she
said that the best practice in curriculum development and implementation require that discipline based
standards embody curricular and program scopes and sequences (Arafeh, 2016). The curriculum quality
audit requires a written curriculum and the tested curriculum linked to both the taught and the written
curricula.
For those who want to engage in curriculum quality audit, the following questions are worth considering:
1. Is the curriculum planned, executed and assessed in accordance with appropriate standards?
2. How does the school system conform to the standards of quality in instructional organization like
specificity, quality and scope for teaching and learning and assessment?
3. Are all students achieving success equally and effectively? If not, what can be done about it?
Benefits of Curriculum Quality Audit
1. Identify gaps, under and overrepresentation of the curriculum based on the standards.
2. Ensures alignment of learning outcomes, activities and assessment to the standards.
3. Achieves an internationally comparable curriculum as standards become the basis of the
curriculum analysis.

The Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers (PPST) can be used as anchor in curriculum quality
audit. The PPST aims to set clear expectations of teachers along well-defined career stages of
professional development from beginning to distinguished practice. The Philippine has adopted and
implemented the PPST through the Department of Education Order (DO) 42, s. 2017. Teacher educators,
program heads, curriculum planners may refer to the PPSt to ‘quality audit’ the pre-service teacher
education curriculum as basis for quality assurance provision of teacher education.
The first CQA in teacher education curriculum in the Philippines was initiated by the Research Center for
Teacher Quality (RCTQ), the Philippine Normal University, Cebu Normal University, West Visayas

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University, Western Mindanao State University and other members universities of the National Network of
Normal Schools (3Ns). Using the curriculum quality audit (CQA) process, pre-service syllabi were
mapped to the PPST to ensure that standards for beginning teachers (career stage 1) are addressed in
the pre-service curriculum. Using the CQA, teacher educators are assured that pre-service teachers
embody the competencies of beginning teachers as they practice their profession in the Department of
Education.
There are other standards that can be used in the CQA aside from the PPST. CHED CMOs 74 to 83 are
standards set by the Commission on Higher Education, specific to the degree program being offered and
the teachers who are the outcomes of the programs. They have both the generic standards for all teacher
education degree programs and specific standards for each degree program. For example CMO 74. S.
2017 contain the standards for Bachelor of Elementary Education, or for teachers who will teach in the
elementary level and CMO 75 s. 2017 contain the standards for Bachelor of Secondary Education or for
teachers who will teach in the secondary level.
Aside from the national standards for teachers, there are also international standards for globalization like
the Competency Framework for Teachers in Southeast Asia (CFT-SEA) of SEAMEO and SEAMES and
the European Tuning Asia Southeast (TASE) teacher competences.

APPLICATION
Activity 1
Get a copy of a syllabus in any professional education course. Identify one or two topics and the
corresponding specific outcomes, learning activities and assessment tasks. Determine the beginning
teacher indicator/s being addressed if any. Is there alignment in the learning outcomes, activities and
assessment tasks that address the beginning teacher indicators? Why and why not?
Course Title
Course Description:
Course Learning Outcomes:

Topic/competency Learning Learning Assessment Beginning Teacher

Outcome/s Activities Indicator/s

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Activity 2
Study the beginning teacher indicators in the PPST. As a pre-service teacher, list the beginning teacher
indicators that you have already acquired as a result of your teacher education training.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Activity 3
Answer the following questions:

1. What happens when a graduate from teacher education program lacks the competencies/standards of
a beginning teacher?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

2. How can CQA as a process help the teacher education institutions and teacher educators achieve
compliance to standards?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

Reference:

Bilbao. P.P. et al. (2020). The Teacher and the School Curriculum. Quezon City : Lorimar Publishing Inc.

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