Engineering Survey

An engineering survey is a type of survey that is used to provide accurate and precise
measurements of physical features and characteristics of a site, which are used in the planning,
design, and construction of engineering projects.

Route survey is the process of gathering information about a proposed route or pathway,
typically for construction or transportation purposes. It involves measuring and mapping the
terrain, identifying potential obstacles or hazards, and determining the most suitable path for
the intended use. The data gathered during a route survey is used to inform the design and
construction of roads, pipelines, railways, and other infrastructure projects.
The purpose of a route survey is to gather detailed information about a proposed route or
pathway in order to:
1. Determine the most suitable path for construction or transportation purposes: A route
survey helps identify the optimal path for a road, pipeline, railway, or other
infrastructure project, taking into account factors such as terrain, obstacles, and
environmental concerns.

2. Identify potential obstacles or hazards: By surveying the proposed route, engineers can
identify any potential obstacles or hazards, such as steep slopes, bodies of water, or
unstable soil conditions. This information is used to design the project to avoid or
mitigate these challenges.

3. Obtain necessary permits and approvals: A route survey provides detailed information
needed for obtaining necessary permits and approvals from regulatory agencies and
landowners.

4. Estimate costs and resources: By surveying the route, engineers can estimate the costs
and resources required to construct the project, including materials, labor, and
equipment.
Procedure of Route/ Road alignment
1. Map study
2. Reconnaissance
3. Preliminary Survey
4. Detail survey

Map study refers to the examination and analysis of maps, which are visual representations
of geographical information. This can include studying the features of a specific map, such as
the scale, legend, and symbols used, as well as the geographical information depicted on the
map, such as landforms, bodies of water, and political boundaries. Map study can be used to
gain a better understanding of geography, history, and culture, as well as to develop skills such
as spatial analysis, navigation, and map interpretation. It can be done through various means,
including traditional cartography methods and digital mapping tools.

Reconnaissance is the process of conducting a preliminary survey or investigation to gather

information about a particular area or situation. It is often used in military operations, where
reconnaissance involves sending out small groups of soldiers or specialized units to gather
intelligence about enemy positions, terrain, and other relevant factors that may impact a
military operation. In non-military contexts, reconnaissance can refer to any type of preliminary
investigation or surveying activity aimed at gathering information for a specific purpose, such as
in urban planning, environmental assessments, or market research. The goal of reconnaissance
is to provide decision-makers with the information needed to make informed decisions and
plan effective strategies.

A Preliminary survey is an initial survey conducted to gather basic information about a

particular area or project site. It is typically conducted before more detailed investigations or
studies to determine the feasibility of the project or the need for further investigation. The
purpose of a preliminary survey is to identify any potential obstacles or issues that may affect
the project's planning, design, or implementation. This survey can include various activities such
as site visits, data collection, and analysis, stakeholder consultation, and review of relevant
documents and literature. The gathered information is then used to determine the project's
viability and inform further decision-making.
The primary function of a preliminary survey is to provide essential information about a
particular area or project site to inform further decision-making, planning, or design.
Some of the key functions of a preliminary survey include:
1. Site assessment: A preliminary survey helps to assess the site's physical, environmental,
and socio-economic conditions. This assessment helps to identify potential risks,
constraints, and opportunities associated with the site.

2. Feasibility analysis: A preliminary survey helps to determine the feasibility of the

proposed project or intervention. This analysis considers factors such as technical
feasibility, economic viability, and social acceptability.

3. Stakeholder engagement: A preliminary survey provides an opportunity to engage with

stakeholders such as local communities, landowners, and regulatory bodies. This
engagement helps to identify potential concerns and preferences that should be
considered in the project's planning and design.

4. Planning and design: The information gathered during the preliminary survey is used to
inform the project's planning and design. This information includes data on the site's
topography, geology, hydrology, and land use, among others.

5. Risk management: A preliminary survey helps to identify potential risks associated with
the project's implementation. This information is used to develop risk management
strategies and mitigation measures to minimize the project's negative impacts.

The conventional method of preliminary survey is a traditional approach to conducting

initial research or survey work in a particular area or project. This method typically involves
gathering data through on-site visits, personal observations, and interviews with local people or
experts.
In this method, the survey team physically visits the study area and collects data through
various techniques such as field mapping, ground traversing, and reconnaissance surveying. The
data collected is then analyzed and used to create maps, charts, and other visual aids that help
in understanding the characteristics of the site or project area.
A detail survey, also known as a topographic survey, is a type of surveying that provides a
detailed and accurate representation of the natural and man-made features of a specific area of
land. The purpose of a detail survey is to provide information about the elevation, contours,
boundaries, and physical characteristics of the land, which can be used to inform the design and
construction of a project.
The process of conducting a detail survey typically involves a combination of fieldwork and data
analysis. Fieldwork involves visiting the site and collecting data through measurements,
observations, and recordings using specialized equipment such as total stations, GPS receivers,
and 3D scanners. The data collected during fieldwork may include measurements of elevations,
angles, distances, and other relevant features.
Fixing Alignment
Fixing alignment refers to the process of determining the optimal route or alignment for a
proposed road, railway, or other linear infrastructure project. The process involves identifying
potential routes, evaluating them based on various factors such as topography, land use, and
environmental impacts, and selecting the most suitable alignment.

Road alignment refers to the geometric design of a road, including its horizontal and vertical
layout, that determines its path and direction of travel. It involves the placement of the road on
the ground in a way that provides safe, efficient, and comfortable travel for motorists and other
users.
Horizontal alignment includes the placement of the road along the x-axis and involves the
design of curves, turns, and intersections. It takes into account the terrain, sight distance, speed
limit, and other factors to create a safe and efficient road. The horizontal alignment is typically
represented as a plan view, which shows the layout of the road from above.

Things to be considered for fixing road alignment:

1. Geographical features and topography of the area where the road will be constructed.
2. Existing infrastructure such as buildings, bridges, and other roads in the vicinity.
3. Land ownership and land use patterns.
4. Environmental concerns such as preserving natural habitats and minimizing impact on
water bodies.
5. Safety considerations such as minimizing sharp turns, ensuring proper drainage, and
minimizing the risk of landslides.
6. Traffic flow patterns and anticipated traffic volume.
7. Accessibility needs for pedestrians, bicycles, and other non-motorized transportation.
8. Economic considerations such as minimizing construction costs and maximizing benefits
to the local economy.
9. Regulatory requirements and permits required for construction.
10. Community input and feedback on the road alignment proposal.
The reasons for fixing road alignment include:
1. To provide a safe and efficient transportation route
2. To minimize environmental impacts
3. To optimize construction and maintenance costs
4. To accommodate current and future traffic demands
5. To maximize accessibility and connectivity
6. To minimize property impacts and acquisitions
7. To comply with applicable laws, regulations, and standards

Work that needs to be done for road alignment:

Reconnaissance survey: This involves a quick evaluation of the project area to identify potential
routes for the road alignment. The survey team will evaluate the area's topography, existing
transportation infrastructure, land use, and environmental conditions to identify potential
routes.
Preliminary survey
This survey aims to select the best route for the road alignment. The team will carry out a
detailed survey of the potential routes identified in the reconnaissance survey. The team will
collect data about the terrain, soil conditions, drainage patterns, and other factors that might
impact road design.
Detail survey
This is a comprehensive survey that collects detailed information about the road alignment. The
team will collect data on the existing ground conditions, the location and boundaries of the
right-of-way, and any other relevant information needed for designing and constructing the
road.
Booking: This is the process of recording the landowners' names and the dimensions of the land
acquired for the road project. The team will document any encroachments or easements
required for the project.
Gradient: The gradient is the slope of the road. It is essential to ensure that the slope is safe and
easy to drive on for motorists. The survey team will measure the existing ground slope and
design the road to ensure a safe gradient.
Plotting: This is the process of drawing the road alignment plan on paper or computer-aided
design software. The team will plot the road alignment based on the data collected during the
reconnaissance, preliminary, and detailed surveys. This plan will be used for construction
purposes and will show the road alignment, right-of-way boundaries, drainage patterns, and
other relevant information.
Factors controlling Road alignment: (कारकहरु)
1. Government requirements: Regulations, laws, and standards set by the government that
must be followed for road construction.
2. Obligatory points: Specific points on the terrain that the road must pass through.
3. Positive obligatory points: Points that provide an advantage, such as easier construction
or a better view.
4. Negative obligatory points: Points that pose a challenge, such as steep terrain or
environmental hazards.
5. Geometric design: The design of the road's curves, slopes, and widths.
6. Traffic: The volume and type of traffic the road is designed to accommodate.
7. Geological conditions: The natural features of the terrain, including soil stability,
drainage, and rock formations.
8. Economic factors: The cost of construction, materials, labor, and maintenance, as well
as any economic benefits the road may provide. Other considerations may include
environmental impact, community input, and cultural or historical significance.

L-Section
A route or road profile L-section is a cross-sectional view of a road or route that shows the
elevation and slope of the ground along a particular stretch of the road. It is typically used by
civil engineers and surveyors to design and plan road construction or improvement projects.
The L-section is created by cutting a vertical plane through the road and the ground it passes
over, resulting in a view that looks like the letter "L." The horizontal axis of the L-section
represents the distance along the road, while the vertical axis represents the elevation above
sea level. The slope of the ground is also shown on the L-section by drawing a line that
represents the slope angle.
The L-section is useful for a variety of purposes. For example, it can be used to determine the
amount of earthwork required to construct or improve the road, or to calculate the volume of
materials needed for grading and drainage. It can also be used to identify areas of the road
where the slope is too steep, or where additional drainage is needed to prevent erosion or
flooding.
In addition, the L-section can be used to visualize how the road will look when completed. By
showing the road profile in relation to the surrounding terrain, the L-section can help designers
and planners to create a road that fits naturally into the landscape, minimizing the visual impact
of the road and improving its safety and usability.
Cross-section
A cross-section of a road is a diagram or drawing that shows a cutaway view of a portion of a
roadway, perpendicular to the direction of the roadway. It provides a detailed illustration of the
physical features of the road and its surroundings, including the road surface, road base,
subgrade, drainage systems, and any other relevant infrastructure.
In a typical road cross-section, the road surface is shown at the top of the diagram. Below the
road surface, the cross-section will show the various layers of the road base and subgrade,
which may include materials such as crushed stone, asphalt, or concrete. The thickness and
composition of these layers may vary depending on the type of road and the local climate and
soil conditions.
The cross-section will also show any drainage systems that are in place, such as ditches,
culverts, or stormwater catch basins. These systems are critical to ensuring that water is
properly managed and does not undermine the road or cause flooding.
In addition to the physical features of the road, a cross-section may also include information on
the right-of-way, or the land that is owned by the government or other entities along the
roadway. This may include information on the width of the road, the location of sidewalks or
bike lanes, and any other relevant information.
Cross-sections are an essential tool for engineers and planners in designing, constructing, and
maintaining roads. They help to ensure that roads are built to the appropriate specifications
and are able to withstand the stresses of heavy traffic and changing weather conditions.

Uses of Cross Section

Cross sections in surveying are used to depict the topography of the terrain along a surveyed
line or route.
They help in understanding the elevation changes, slopes, and contours of the land for
construction or infrastructure projects.
Cross sections aid in designing roadways, railways, canals, pipelines, and other civil engineering
projects by providing a detailed profile of the terrain.
They assist in calculating earthwork volumes, drainage patterns, and determining suitable
locations for structures or installations.
Cross sections are crucial for analyzing and visualizing the landscape's characteristics and
assisting in decision-making during the planning and design stages of various projects.
Water Supply
Water supply refers to the process of providing clean and safe drinking water to communities
or individuals. The process typically involves collecting water from a natural source such as a
river, lake or groundwater aquifer, treating it to remove impurities, and distributing it through a
network of pipes to homes, businesses, and other users. Water supply systems are essential for
maintaining public health and hygiene, as access to clean water is critical for drinking, cooking,
washing, and other daily activities. The design and operation of water supply systems require
careful consideration of factors such as water quality, source availability, treatment technology,
and distribution network infrastructure.

Necessity and importance of water supply system

1. Ensures public health and safety by providing clean and safe drinking water.
2. Reduces the spread of waterborne diseases by providing access to safe water for
drinking, cooking, and hygiene.
3. Supports economic development by providing reliable water supply to homes,
businesses, and industries.
4. Enhances quality of life by providing access to safe water for personal hygiene,
recreation, and aesthetic purposes.
5. Helps to meet basic human needs by providing access to water for drinking, cooking,
and sanitation.
6. Promotes sustainable water management by ensuring equitable distribution of water
resources and reducing waste.
7. Supports environmental conservation by providing water for ecosystems and habitats.
8. Helps to mitigate the effects of climate change by improving water efficiency and
conservation.
9. Improves disaster resilience by ensuring reliable water supply during emergencies and
disasters.
10. Promotes social equity by ensuring access to safe water for all members of the
community, regardless of income or social status.
Objectives of a water supply system
1. Ensuring that the water supply meets minimum quality standards for drinking water.
2. Providing adequate water quantity to meet the needs of the population served.
3. Maintaining reliable and efficient water supply infrastructure to ensure uninterrupted
supply.
4. Reducing the incidence of waterborne diseases by providing access to safe water.
5. Ensuring equitable distribution of water resources to meet the needs of all members of
the community.
6. Promoting efficient use of water resources through conservation and management.
7. Encouraging community participation in the planning, operation, and maintenance of
water supply systems.
8. Providing access to water for other uses such as agriculture, industry, and firefighting.
9. Ensuring the sustainability of water supply systems through proper management,
maintenance, and investment.
10. Improving the quality of life for the population served by providing access to safe and
reliable drinking water.

Types of Water
1. Pure water:
Pure water is water that contains no impurities, minerals, or other substances. It is free from all
dissolved and suspended solids, microbes, and chemical contaminants. Pure water can be
obtained through processes such as distillation, reverse osmosis, or deionization.

2. Potable Water
Potable water is water that is safe and suitable for human consumption. It meets minimum
standards for drinking water quality and is free from harmful contaminants such as bacteria,
viruses, chemicals, and other impurities. Potable water is typically treated to remove
contaminants and disinfected to ensure it is safe for consumption.

3. Infected Water
Infected water is water that contains harmful microbes such as bacteria, viruses, and parasites.
It may cause illness or disease if consumed by humans. Infected water can be found in areas
with poor sanitation and hygiene practices or where water sources are contaminated by animal
or human waste.
 4. Polluted or Contaminated Water
Polluted or contaminated water is water that contains harmful substances or pollutants such as
chemicals, heavy metals, pesticides, or industrial waste. It may be unsafe for human
consumption and can cause health problems if consumed. Polluted water can also harm the
environment and ecosystems, affecting aquatic life and wildlife.

5. Wholesome Water

Wholesome water is water that is safe, clean, and free from harmful contaminants. It is suitable for
human consumption and meets minimum quality standards for drinking water. Wholesome water is
typically treated and disinfected to ensure it is safe for consumption and may also contain beneficial
minerals and nutrients.

Essentials (अत्यावस्यक) of water Supply Engineering

Source: The source refers to the origin of the water in a water supply scheme. It could be a
natural source such as a river, lake, reservoir, groundwater aquifer, or a man-made source like a
dam or a well. The quality and quantity of water available from the source are essential
considerations in designing a water supply system.
Intake: The intake is the structure or facility where water is collected from the source and
directed into the water supply system. It typically consists of screens or filters to remove debris
and other impurities from the water before it enters the system. Intakes are strategically
located to ensure reliable access to water while minimizing the risk of contamination.
Pipeline:
Transmission Pipeline: The transmission pipeline is a network of large-diameter pipes that
transport water from the intake or source to the treatment plant or distribution system. These
pipelines are designed to convey water over long distances with minimal loss or contamination.
Distribution Pipeline: The distribution pipeline is a network of smaller-diameter pipes that
distribute treated water from the treatment plant to consumers, such as homes, businesses,
and industries. Distribution pipelines deliver water to various points of use within the served
area, ensuring adequate supply and pressure.
Treatment Plant: The treatment plant is a facility where raw water from the source undergoes
treatment processes to make it safe, clean, and potable for human consumption. Treatment
processes may include filtration, disinfection, sedimentation, and chemical treatment to
remove contaminants, pathogens, and impurities from the water. Treatment plants are
essential for ensuring the quality and safety of drinking water in a water supply scheme.
Setting out of a pipeline
Setting out of a pipeline refers to the process of establishing the precise alignment, elevation,
and location of the pipeline route on the ground before construction begins. It involves
transferring the design specifications from engineering plans or drawings onto the actual
terrain where the pipeline will be installed.

The setting out process typically includes the following steps:

Alignment:
Surveyors mark the centerline of the pipeline route on the ground, ensuring that it follows the
specified alignment as per the engineering design. This involves using surveying instruments
such as total stations or GPS receivers to accurately measure angles and distances along the
route.

Elevation:
Surveyors establish the required elevation or gradient of the pipeline by determining the
vertical distance between successive points along the alignment. This ensures that the pipeline
will have the correct slope to facilitate the flow of fluids and comply with design specifications.

Location:
Surveyors mark the positions of key features such as bends, junctions, valves, and access points
along the pipeline route. This helps ensure that the pipeline is installed according to the design
requirements and allows for accurate placement of fittings and connections during
construction.
Discharge
Discharge refers to the volume or amount of water that flows through a river, stream, or other
watercourse per unit of time. It is usually expressed in cubic meters per second (m³/s) or cubic
feet per second (ft³/s). Discharge can vary greatly depending on factors such as the size and
slope of the watercourse, rainfall, and other environmental conditions. Discharge is an
important parameter in hydrology and water resources management, as it can impact water
availability, water quality, and the environment. It is typically measured using flow gauges or
other monitoring equipment.
∅= 𝐴×𝑉
∅ = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝐴 = 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑉=
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
Discharge measurement Technique:
1. Stopwatch and Bucket Method: The stopwatch and bucket method is a simple and
inexpensive technique for measuring discharge in a small stream or river. In this
method, a section of the stream is selected, and a known volume of water is collected
using a bucket. The time taken to fill the bucket is recorded using a stopwatch, and the
discharge is calculated by dividing the volume of water collected by the time taken to
collect it. This method is useful when the flow is too slow to use velocity area method.
𝑛𝑉
𝑉=
Σ𝑡

2. Velocity Area Method: The velocity area method is a commonly used technique for
measuring discharge in larger rivers and streams. In this method, the flow velocity is
measured at several points across the stream using a current meter or other flow
measuring device. The cross-sectional area of the stream is also measured at each point.
The discharge is then calculated by multiplying the average flow velocity by the cross-
sectional area of the stream. This method requires more sophisticated equipment and
expertise but is generally more accurate than the stopwatch and bucket method.
Surface water sources
Surface water sources refer to water that is found in rivers, lakes, streams, and other bodies of
water on the earth's surface. This water is readily visible and can be easily accessed for various
uses such as drinking, irrigation, and industrial processes. Surface water sources are usually
replenished by rainwater, snowmelt, or groundwater that seeps into the surface water bodies.

A stream is a flowing body of water that moves in a natural channel or course on the Earth's
surface. It may be fed by small tributaries or springs and can merge with larger rivers or lakes.
Streams can vary in size and flow, ranging from small trickles to powerful rushing currents. They
play an important role in the water cycle, carrying water from one place to another and
providing habitats for aquatic plants and animals. Streams are often used for various human
activities, such as recreation, fishing, and as a source of water for drinking, irrigation, and
industry.
1. Rainfed Stream or Non-perennial Stream
A rainfed stream, also known as a non-perennial stream, is a stream that only flows during
certain times of the year when there is enough rainfall or snowmelt to provide water to the
stream. These streams can often dry up completely during periods of drought or when the
water source is depleted. Non-perennial streams are commonly found in arid and semi-arid
regions where rainfall is unpredictable or seasonal.
2. Perennial Stream
A perennial stream is a stream that flows throughout the year, regardless of seasonal changes.
These streams are fed by a constant source of water such as a spring, groundwater, or
snowmelt. Perennial streams are usually found in areas with consistent rainfall, high elevation,
or a reliable source of groundwater.
3. Spring-fed Stream
A spring-fed stream is a stream that is fed by groundwater that emerges from a spring. Springs
occur when groundwater from an underground aquifer reaches the surface through a natural
opening in the ground. Spring-fed streams are usually cold, clear, and have a constant flow rate
throughout the year.
4. Snow-fed Stream
A snow-fed stream is a stream that is fed by snowmelt. These streams are usually found in high-
elevation regions with cold temperatures and heavy snowfall. The snowmelt feeds the streams
during the spring and summer months when the snow begins to melt, providing a consistent
source of water throughout the year. The flow rate of snow-fed streams can vary greatly
depending on the amount of snowfall and the rate of melting.
1. Rivers
Rivers are natural watercourses that flow across the land, typically originating from springs,
rainfall runoff, or melting snow. They vary in size from small streams to large, navigable
waterways. Rivers serve as important sources of freshwater for various human activities such as
drinking water supply, irrigation, industrial use, and recreation.
2. Ponds
Ponds are small bodies of water that are usually shallow and surrounded by land. They can be
natural or human-made and are often found in parks, gardens, agricultural areas, and wetlands.
Ponds may serve as habitats for various aquatic plants and animals and are sometimes used for
recreational fishing or as watering holes for livestock.
3. Lakes
Lakes are larger bodies of water that are enclosed by land. They are typically deeper than ponds
and may vary in size from small, shallow lakes to large, deep ones. Lakes can form naturally
through geological processes such as tectonic activity, glaciation, or volcanic activity. They serve
as important sources of freshwater, habitats for aquatic life, and recreational areas for boating,
swimming, and fishing.
4. Sea
The sea refers to large bodies of saltwater that cover the majority of the Earth's surface. Seas
are interconnected, forming vast oceanic systems such as the Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean,
Indian Ocean, and Arctic Ocean. Seas play a crucial role in regulating the Earth's climate,
supporting marine ecosystems, and providing resources such as fish, minerals, and energy.
5. Impounded Reservoir
An impounded reservoir is a human-made body of water created by constructing a dam across
a river or stream. The dam traps water upstream, forming a reservoir or lake. Impounded
reservoirs are used for various purposes, including water supply, flood control, hydroelectric
power generation, and recreation. They can have significant environmental impacts, affecting
river ecosystems and altering natural water flow patterns.
6. Rainwater
Rainwater is precipitation that falls from the atmosphere in the form of raindrops. It is one of
the primary sources of freshwater on Earth. Rainwater can replenish surface water sources
such as rivers, lakes, and ponds, as well as groundwater aquifers. In urban areas, rainwater
harvesting systems are used to collect and store rainwater for various purposes, including
irrigation, toilet flushing, and groundwater recharge.
Subsurface water sources
Subsurface water sources, on the other hand, refer to water that is found underground, such
as in aquifers. This water is not visible and requires drilling or pumping to access it. Subsurface
water sources are usually replenished by precipitation that seeps through the soil and rocks to
reach underground reservoirs. This water is often used for drinking, irrigation, and industrial
purposes.
Spring
A spring is a natural source of water that emerges from the ground due to the underground
flow of groundwater. Springs occur where an aquifer, which is a layer of permeable rock or soil
that holds water, intersects the surface of the Earth. Springs can vary in size and flow rate, from
small trickles to large, flowing streams. They are important sources of freshwater and often
support unique ecosystems.
1. Gravity Spring
A gravity spring is a type of spring where the water flows naturally to the surface due to the
force of gravity.
1. Depressing spring
2. Contact/surface spring
3. Artesian Spring

2. Non-Gravity Spring
A non-gravity spring is a type of spring where the water does not flow naturally to the surface
due to gravity alone. Instead, the water may be forced to the surface by other factors such as
pressure from geological formations or the presence of impermeable layers of rock or soil
above the aquifer. Non-gravity springs may require additional mechanisms such as pumping or
artificial wells to access the water.
3. Well
Man-made structure to access groundwater by digging into the ground and installing a pump
for extraction.
1) Deep well
2) Shallow well
3) Tube well
4) Artesian well
4. Porous Pipe Galleries
Underground networks of perforated pipes filled with gravel to collect and distribute
groundwater for irrigation, flood control, etc.
SELECTING A WATER SOURCE
Factors to consider when selecting a water source:
1. Location
The location of the water source is a critical factor to consider. The water source should be
located near the area where the water will be used to minimize the cost of transportation and
distribution. The location should also be easily accessible to ensure that maintenance and
repairs can be carried out easily.
2. Types
The type of water source is also an important consideration. There are different types of water
sources, such as surface water sources like rivers, lakes, and reservoirs, and groundwater
sources like wells and springs. The type of water source chosen should be suitable for the
intended use, and it should be able to meet the required water demand.
3. Quantity
The quantity of water available from the water source is an essential factor to consider. The
water source should be able to provide the required amount of water, taking into account the
population, the intended use, and future growth.
4. Quality
The quality of the water is also crucial when selecting a water source. The water source should
be tested to ensure that the water meets the required quality standards and is safe for human
consumption. The water quality should also be monitored regularly to ensure that it continues
to meet the required standards.
5. Cost
The cost of developing, maintaining, and distributing the water source is a crucial factor to
consider. The cost should be reasonable and should not exceed the budget allocated for the
project.
6. Sustainable and Safe
The water source should be sustainable, meaning that it should be able to meet the water
demand without causing harm to the environment or depleting the water source. It should also
be safe, meaning that the water should not pose any health risks to consumers.
7. Non-conflict
The water source should not cause any conflicts with other users or neighboring communities.
The water source should be legally and ethically obtained to ensure that it does not cause any
disputes or conflicts.
Intake

In the context of water supply systems, an Intake is a structure or facility designed to extract
water from a water source such as a river, lake, or reservoir. The intake is usually located at the
water's edge and consists of screens or filters to prevent debris, sediment, and aquatic life from
entering the water supply system. The water is then transported through pipelines or channels
to a treatment plant or storage facility. The design and construction of the intake depend on
several factors, including the volume and quality of water required, the characteristics of the
water source, and the environmental impact of the intake on the surrounding ecosystem.
Intakes are an essential component of water supply systems, as they provide the initial source
of water for treatment and distribution to consumers.

Points to be considered when creating an intake for a water supply system:

1. Selection of an appropriate location for the intake that is easily accessible and close to the
water source
2. Determination of the required capacity of the intake based on the volume of water required
and the expected demand
3. Selection of the appropriate type of intake structure depending on the characteristics of the
water source and the environmental impact of the intake
4. Design of the intake structure to prevent the entry of sediment, debris, and aquatic life into
the water supply system
5. Provision of screens, filters, and other equipment to protect the water supply system from
contaminants and maintain the quality of the water
6. Consideration of the potential impact of the intake on the ecosystem and the environment,
including the need for environmental assessments and permits
7. Provision of appropriate access and safety measures to facilitate maintenance, inspection,
and repair of the intake structure
8. Determination of the appropriate method for transporting the water from the intake
structure to the treatment plant or storage facility, taking into account the distance, terrain,
and other factors
9. Consideration of the costs associated with the design, construction, and maintenance of the
intake structure, including the costs of materials, labor, equipment, and permits.
Types Of Intake
Spring Intake
A spring intake is a type of water intake structure that extracts water from a natural spring. A
natural spring is a location where groundwater flows out of the ground, typically forming a pool
or stream. Spring intakes are designed to capture this flow of water and direct it into a water
supply system.
The design of a spring intake will depend on several factors, such as the volume and quality of
the spring water, the location of the spring, and the intended use of the water. Typically, a
spring intake will include a screen or other filtering mechanism to remove sediment and debris
from the water before it enters the water supply system. The intake may also include a storage
tank or other holding structure to ensure a consistent supply of water and to protect against
fluctuations in the flow of the spring.

Stream or River Intake

A stream or river intake is a type of water intake structure that extracts water from a river or
stream. The design of a stream or river intake will depend on several factors, such as the
volume and quality of the water, the location of the intake, and the intended use of the water.
Typically, a Stream or river intake will include a screen or other filtering mechanism to remove
sediment, debris, and aquatic life from the water before it enters the water supply system. The
intake may also include a diversion structure to direct the flow of water towards the intake, a
pumping station to lift the water to a higher elevation, and a storage tank or other holding
structure to ensure a consistent supply of water.
Collection Chamber
A collection chamber, also known as a sump, is a component in a water supply system that
collects and temporarily stores water before it is distributed to consumers. The collection
chamber may be located underground, typically below the water source or storage tank, or
aboveground.
The primary purpose of a collection chamber is to ensure that the water being supplied to
consumers is clean and free from debris. The chamber acts as a settlement tank, allowing
sediment and other particles to settle out of the water before it is distributed to consumers. In
addition to sediment, collection chambers can also trap debris such as leaves and twigs that
may enter the system.

Break Pressure Tank

A break pressure tank, also known as an interruption chamber, is a component of a water
supply system that is used to prevent water from flowing backward in the event of a sudden
drop in pressure. The tank is typically installed at a strategic location in the distribution system
and is designed to provide a cushion of air that can absorb the shock caused by a sudden drop
in pressure.
The break pressure tank is typically filled with compressed air, and is designed to maintain a
certain level of pressure within the tank. When the pressure in the distribution system drops
suddenly, such as in the event of a water main break or other disruption, the air in the tank
expands and helps to maintain the pressure within the system. This helps to prevent the water
from flowing backward, which can lead to contamination or other issues.

Sedimentation Tank
A sedimentation tank, also known as a settling tank or clarifier, is a component of a water
treatment system that is used to remove suspended particles and solids from water. The tank
works by allowing the water to sit still for a period of time, which causes the suspended
particles to settle to the bottom of the tank.
The design of a sedimentation tank will depend on several factors, such as the volume of water
to be treated, the size and type of suspended particles, and the required level of treatment.
Typically, the tank will be designed to provide a certain amount of retention time, which allows
the suspended particles to settle out of the water.

Distribution Chamber
A distribution chamber is a structure in a water distribution system where water is collected
and then distributed to different pipelines or areas. It acts as a central point for controlling the
flow of water and directing it to various destinations.
Air Valve
An air valve is a device installed on a pipeline to release air trapped inside the pipe. It helps
prevent air pockets from building up, which can cause problems such as reduced flow, water
hammer, or damage to the pipeline. Air valves are typically located at high points in the system.

Washout
A washout is a type of valve or outlet in a water distribution system used to flush out sediment,
debris, or stagnant water from the pipeline. It helps maintain water quality and prevent
clogging or contamination of the system.

Valve Chamber
A valve chamber is a protective enclosure built around valves installed on a pipeline. It provides
access for maintenance and repair of the valves while protecting them from damage.

Pipeline
A pipeline is a system of pipes used to transport fluids such as water, oil, or gas from one
location to another. Pipelines are commonly used for various purposes, including water supply,
sewage disposal, transportation of fuels, and distribution of utilities.

Pipe Crossing
A pipe crossing refers to a location where one pipeline passes over or under another pipeline,
road, railway, river, or other obstacle. Proper design and construction of pipe crossings are
essential to ensure the integrity and safety of the pipelines and to minimize the risk of damage
or leakage.
Non-Suspending Crossing: A non-suspending crossing refers to a situation where one pipeline
passes over or under another pipeline, road, railway, river, or obstacle without any additional
support or suspension.
1) Under Bed Crossing: An under bed crossing occurs when one pipeline passes underneath
another pipeline or obstacle. This type of crossing is often used to avoid interference
between pipelines or to minimize the risk of damage from external factors such as traffic or
construction activities.
2) Over Bed Crossing: An over bed crossing involves one pipeline passing over another
pipeline or obstacle. This type of crossing is employed when it is not feasible or practical to
lay the pipeline underground. The upper pipeline is supported above the obstacle by
structures such as bridges, elevated platforms, or pipe racks.
Suspended Crossing: A suspended crossing occurs when one pipeline is supported above
another pipeline, road, railway, river, or obstacle by suspension structures such as cables,
pylons, or towers.
Reservoir tank (RVT)
A reservoir tank (RVT) is a large storage tank used in water supply systems to store water for
later use. These tanks are typically located at high elevations, such as on a hill or mountain, to
create a gravitational force that allows water to flow downward to lower elevations where it is
needed.
The primary purpose of an RVT is to provide a consistent supply of water to consumers,
particularly during periods of high demand or low supply. Water can be pumped into the tank
during times when demand is low, such as at night, and then released during times of high
demand, such as during the day or during periods of drought.
RVTs may also be used to regulate water pressure in the system. By storing water at a higher
elevation, the gravitational force created by the weight of the water can help to maintain
consistent pressure throughout the network.
In addition to their practical uses in water supply systems, RVTs can also be used for
recreational purposes, such as fishing, boating, and swimming.
Overall, reservoir tanks are an important component of many water supply systems, helping to
ensure a consistent and reliable supply of water to consumers.

Objectives of reservoir tank

1. To store water for later use, particularly during periods of low supply or high demand.
2. To provide a consistent and reliable supply of water to consumers.
3. To regulate water pressure in the system, particularly by creating a gravitational force
that allows water to flow downward to lower elevations.
4. To serve as a backup source of water in case of emergencies or system failures.
5. To allow for maintenance and repairs to be performed on other components of the
water supply system without interrupting service to consumers.
6. To help prevent water shortages and droughts by storing water during periods of high
supply.
7. To support agricultural and industrial uses of water by providing a consistent and
reliable supply.
8. To provide recreational opportunities such as fishing, boating, and swimming.
Tapstand
A tapstand is a simple infrastructure component used in water supply systems to provide access
to clean drinking water in rural or peri-urban areas. It typically consists of a small faucet or tap
attached to a pipe connected to a water source, such as a borehole, well, or water distribution
network. Tapstands are usually located at convenient points within communities, allowing
residents to collect water for drinking, cooking, and other domestic purposes.

Canal alignment/ Water supply alignment

Canal alignment refers to the planning and design of the route that a canal will follow. This includes
determining the starting and ending points, as well as the path it will take to connect these two points.
Canal alignment is a critical step in canal construction because it determines the canal's capacity,
efficiency, and effectiveness in transporting water.

Water supply alignment, on the other hand, refers to the process of planning and designing a system
that transports water from a source to its intended destination. This can include designing pipelines,
pumps, and other equipment needed to move water efficiently and effectively.

Both canal alignment and water supply alignment require careful consideration of factors such as
terrain, hydrology, and the needs of the end-users. Proper alignment is essential to ensure that the
canal or water supply system can deliver water reliably and efficiently while minimizing the risk of
damage or failure.

Reconnaissance Survey
A reconnaissance survey is an initial survey conducted over a large area to gather basic
information on the terrain, hydrology, and potential alignment options. This survey typically
involves aerial photography and ground reconnaissance to assess the feasibility of different
canal alignments. The information gathered during a reconnaissance survey is used to select
the most promising alignment options for further study.

Detailed Survey
After the reconnaissance survey, a detailed survey is conducted to gather more precise
information on the selected alignment options. This survey involves measuring the topography,
water levels, soil conditions, and other relevant factors along the proposed canal alignment.
The information gathered during a detailed survey is used to finalize the design of the canal,
including its capacity, depth, and dimensions.
Some of the works that need to be done during canal alignment include determining the
starting and ending points of the canal, selecting the best path for the canal, ensuring proper
drainage along the canal, and selecting the type of canal lining to be used. The surveys help to
determine the optimal alignment and ensure that the canal is designed to function effectively
and efficiently.
Marking or fixing the centerline
Marking or fixing the centerline is a crucial step in canal alignment. The centerline represents
the axis of the canal and determines the path that the canal will follow. Fixing the centerline
accurately is important to ensure that the canal is constructed in the correct location and
alignment.
To mark or fix the centerline, surveyors use a range of instruments, such as total stations, GPS
receivers, or other surveying equipment. The process involves measuring the terrain along the
proposed alignment and establishing a straight line between the starting and ending points of
the canal.

Gradient maintenance
Gradient maintenance is an important aspect of canal design and construction. The gradient, or
slope, of a canal is the rate at which the water surface elevation changes along the length of the
canal. The gradient is typically expressed as a percentage, and a properly maintained gradient is
essential for ensuring that water flows efficiently and effectively through the canal.
Bridge
A bridge is a structure that is built to span a physical obstacle such as a body of water, a valley,
or a roadway. It is designed to support the weight of people, vehicles, or other materials that
pass over it. Bridges are typically made of various materials such as steel, concrete, or wood,
and can be of various types including suspension, beam, arch, truss, cable-stayed, and many
others. Bridges are important in transportation, as they provide a safe and efficient means of
crossing obstacles and connecting people and places. They also play an important role in the
construction industry, as they are used to support construction work over gaps or trenches.

Importance of bridge
1. Facilitates Transportation: Bridges are essential for providing a safe and efficient means
of transportation, allowing people and vehicles to cross bodies of water, valleys, and
other obstacles.
2. Enhances Connectivity: Bridges help to connect different regions, communities, and
countries, improving communication, trade, and cultural exchange.

3. Boosts Economic Growth: Bridges play a crucial role in economic growth and
development by facilitating the movement of goods and services, reducing
transportation costs, and enhancing access to markets.
4. Increases Accessibility: Bridges make it easier for people to access essential services
such as healthcare, education, and emergency services, especially in areas where other
means of transportation are limited.

5. Improves Safety: Bridges provide a safer alternative to other modes of transportation,

such as ferry boats, which can be risky, especially in adverse weather conditions.

6. Supports Tourism: Bridges can become iconic landmarks that attract tourists and
contribute to the development of tourism infrastructure in the surrounding areas.

7. Fosters Social Cohesion: Bridges promote social cohesion by connecting different

communities, facilitating cultural exchange and improving social interactions.

8. Enhances Resilience: Bridges are essential infrastructure for disaster management and
emergency response, enabling the quick and efficient movement of relief supplies,
emergency responders, and evacuees.
Factors affecting the selection of a Bridge type:
1. Span length required
2. Spacing of beam
3. Site conditions (e.g., water depth, soil type, seismic activity)
4. Environmental factors (e.g., wind, temperature, corrosion)
5. Traffic volume and type (e.g., pedestrian, vehicle, railway)
6. Maintenance requirements and lifecycle costs
7. Aesthetic and cultural considerations
8. Construction time and cost
9. Legal and regulatory requirements.

Bridge Surveying
A bridge survey is a specialized type of surveying conducted to gather data and information
necessary for the planning, design, construction, maintenance, and monitoring of bridges. The
primary goal of a bridge survey is to ensure the safe and efficient functioning of the bridge
infrastructure.

Factors to be considered when selecting the bridge axis:

Topography and Terrain: The natural features of the landscape, such as hills, valleys, rivers, and
roads, influence the selection of the bridge axis. Engineers aim to minimize the impact on the
surrounding environment while ensuring the bridge's stability and functionality.
Hydrology: If the bridge spans a water body such as a river or a stream, the flow pattern, water
depth, and flood risk are essential considerations. The bridge axis should be aligned to minimize
obstruction to water flow and reduce the risk of flooding.
Geotechnical Conditions: The soil and subsurface conditions at the proposed bridge location
affect the choice of the bridge axis. Engineers conduct soil investigations to assess the stability
and bearing capacity of the ground to support the bridge foundations.
Traffic Considerations: The traffic volume, flow patterns, and anticipated future growth in
traffic influence the alignment of the bridge axis. Engineers aim to optimize traffic flow while
ensuring the safety and efficiency of the bridge.
Environmental and Regulatory Factors: Environmental regulations, protected areas, cultural
heritage sites, and other constraints may affect the selection of the bridge axis. Engineers must
comply with relevant regulations and consider the environmental impact of the bridge project.
Cost and Construction Considerations: The construction cost, material availability, and
construction methods also influence the choice of the bridge axis. Engineers aim to minimize
construction costs while ensuring the structural integrity and longevity of the bridge.
Some use terms about Bridge
Eddying: Swirling motion of water caused by currents or obstacles.
Scour: Erosion due to water flow, often deepening channels or undermining structures.
Erosion: Gradual removal of soil or rock by natural forces like water or wind.
Runoff: Water flowing over land surface after rainfall, replenishing water bodies.
Waterway: Navigable route for boats or ships on rivers, canals, or oceans.
Methods for Surveying a Bridge Site ( To Be done for Bridge survey)
1. Establish a Project Committee
The project committee should include the following members:
1) Heads of relevant departments
2) Chief Geotechnical Engineer
3) Chief Hydrologist
4) Administrative Head of the concerned area
2. Study the Topographical Map of the Surrounding Area
1) Locate the bridge site on the topographical map.
2) Select at least three possible axes for the bridge alignment.
3. Conduct Field Survey or Inspection
1) Carry out a reconnaissance survey.
2) Arrange for a survey to be conducted 200 meters upstream and 500 meters downstream of
the bridge site.
3) Establish benchmarks at the points where the axes are selected.
4) Determine whether there are any existing survey points in the surrounding villages. If so,
arrange for the coordinates of the control points to be obtained to facilitate the survey
work. If not, establish control points using triangulation or traverse methods.
4. Determine the Reduced Level (RL) of Every Chainage Up to 700m
Prepare an L-section along the control line of the river and plot the RLs obtained from the L-
section.
The vertical scale should be 1/10th of the horizontal scale. For example, if the horizontal scale is
1:1000, the vertical scale should be 1:100.
Determine the height difference between the riverbanks and the benchmark using reciprocal
leveling.
Once the L-section has been plotted, prepare cross-sections.
Take RLs at least 15 meters to the right and left of the cross-sections, wherever the terrain
changes.
Determining RLs and Plotting
Staff Reading Method:
Use a staff to take readings at the specified points along the riverbank.
Record the staff readings in a field notebook.
Convert the staff readings to RLs using the benchmark elevation as the reference point.
Plot the RLs on a graph, using a suitable horizontal and vertical scale.

Scale Selection:
Choose a scale that allows for clear and accurate representation of the data.
The vertical scale should be approximately 1/10th of the horizontal scale.
For example, if the horizontal scale is 1:1000, the vertical scale should be 1:100.
Plotting the RLs:
Plot each RL as a point on the graph.
Connect the points with a smooth line.
Label the axes with the appropriate units (e.g., meters).

Establishing Control Points:

Determine the coordinates of the control points using an appropriate method, such as
triangulation, traverse, or theodolite survey.
If possible, utilize existing high-quality control points as reference points.
Base the selection of control points on the extent of the survey area and the desired accuracy.

Bridge Axis Selection:

If a base committee has been established, follow their guidelines for selecting the bridge axis.
If a Topo map is available, present the Topo map with the designated bridge axis (No. 1).
Conduct surveys for Axis No. 2 and Axis No. 3 in a similar manner.

Data Preparation and DPR:

Compile the survey data, including RLs, coordinates, and cross-sections.
Utilize the compiled data to prepare a Detailed Project Report (DPR).
The DPR should include all relevant technical details and specifications for the bridge project.
Components of Bridge
1. Substructure
2. Superstructure
3. Adjoining Structure
Substructure:
Abutment: Abutments are the supporting structures at the ends of a bridge. They bear the
weight of the bridge deck and transfer it to the ground or supporting structure, such as the
earth or a pier. Abutments are typically made of concrete or masonry and provide stability and
resistance to lateral forces.
Piers: Piers are vertical or inclined supports that hold up the bridge deck between abutments.
They are built in water or on land and provide additional support to the bridge structure. Piers
can vary in shape and size depending on the design of the bridge and the environmental
conditions.
Wing wall: Wing walls are retaining walls attached to the abutments or piers of a bridge. They
help to stabilize the soil or embankment adjacent to the bridge and prevent erosion. Wing walls
also provide a transition between the bridge structure and the surrounding terrain.

Superstructure:
Deck: The deck is the horizontal surface of the bridge that carries the traffic load. It is
supported by the beams, girders, arches, or cables and provides a roadway or pathway for
vehicles, pedestrians, or trains to travel across the bridge.
Beam or girders: Beams or girders are structural elements that support the deck of the bridge.
They span between the abutments or piers and carry the load of the deck and traffic. Beams
can be made of steel, concrete, or wood and come in various shapes and sizes depending on
the design requirements.
Arches and cables: Arches and cables are structural elements used in some bridge designs to
support the deck. Arches are curved supports that transfer the load of the deck to the
abutments or piers. Cables are tension members that suspend the deck from towers or other
supports, such as in suspension bridges or cable-stayed bridges.
Parapet wall and handrail: Parapet walls and handrails are safety features installed along the
edges of the bridge deck to prevent vehicles or pedestrians from falling off. Parapet walls are
low walls or barriers, while handrails are horizontal or vertical railings that provide support and
guidance for pedestrians.
Flooring: Flooring refers to the surface material of the bridge deck. It can be made of concrete,
asphalt, steel grating, or other materials depending on the bridge's design, traffic volume, and
environmental conditions.

Adjoining Structure:
Approaches: Approaches are the sections of roadway or pathway that lead to the bridge from
either side. They connect the bridge to the existing road network and provide a transition
between the bridge and the surrounding terrain.
Guard Stones: Guard stones are protective barriers or barriers installed along the approaches
or edges of the bridge to prevent vehicles from leaving the roadway or falling off the bridge.
They help improve safety by guiding traffic and reducing the risk of accidents.

Classification of Bridge
Based on material
1. Timber bridge
2. Stone bridge
3. Rock bridge
4. Steel bridge
5. Pre-stress bridge
6. Composite bridge

As per Alignment
1. Straight alignment bridge
2. Skew bridge

Based on purpose
1. Aqueduct
2. Vi- aqueduct
3. Highway bridge
4. Railway bridge
5. Foot bridge
6. Pipe bridge

According to span length

1. Culvert: Bridge span length less than 6m
2. Minor bridge: Bridge span length between 6 to 30m
3. Major bridge: Bridge span length between 30 to 120m
4. Long Bridge: Bridge span more than 120m
Types of Bridge
Beam Bridge:
A beam bridge is the simplest type of bridge, consisting of horizontal beams supported by
vertical piers or abutments. Beam bridges are suitable for short spans and are often used for
pedestrian walkways, roadways, and railway crossings.
Arch Bridge:
An arch bridge features a curved structure that supports the weight of the bridge deck through
compression forces. Arch bridges are known for their strength and aesthetics and are
commonly used for medium to long spans over rivers, valleys, or gorges.
Suspension Bridge:
A suspension bridge uses cables suspended from tall towers to support the bridge deck. The
cables are anchored at each end of the bridge and carry the weight of the deck through tension
forces. Suspension bridges are ideal for long spans and are commonly used for major river
crossings and estuaries.
Cable-Stayed Bridge:
A cable-stayed bridge employs cables attached directly to the bridge deck, which are anchored
to tall pylons or towers. The cables transmit the load from the deck to the towers, providing
support and stability. Cable-stayed bridges are suitable for medium to long spans and are often
used for both road and railway crossings.
Truss Bridge:
A truss bridge consists of a framework of interconnected beams, known as trusses, which
support the bridge deck. Truss bridges are lightweight and efficient, making them suitable for a
wide range of spans and load conditions. They are commonly used for roadways, railways, and
pedestrian crossings.
Girder Bridge:
A girder bridge features horizontal beams, known as girders, that support the bridge deck.
Girder bridges can be simple or continuous and are suitable for medium to long spans. They are
commonly used for highways, railways, and pedestrian crossings.
Flood
A flood is a natural disaster that occurs when water overflows from its normal course and
covers land that is normally dry. Floods can be caused by a variety of factors, including heavy
rainfall, rapid snowmelt, storm surges, and dam or levee failures. Floods can have severe
impacts on human settlements, infrastructure, agriculture, and the environment. They can
cause property damage, displacement of people, and loss of life. Floods can also result in long-
term consequences such as erosion, water pollution, and the spread of waterborne diseases.
Flood Level
Flood level refers to the height or elevation of the water surface during a flood event, typically
measured in relation to a fixed point such as a benchmark or reference datum. The flood level
can vary depending on the severity and duration of the flood, the topography and drainage
characteristics of the affected area, and the location and effectiveness of flood control
measures. Flood levels are important for predicting and mitigating the impacts of flooding, as
well as for evaluating the risks associated with living or working in flood-prone areas.
High flood level
High flood level refers to the maximum elevation that the water surface reaches during a flood
event, typically measured in relation to a fixed point such as a benchmark or reference datum.
The high flood level can vary depending on the severity and duration of the flood, the
topography and drainage characteristics of the affected area, and the location and
effectiveness of flood control measures. It is an important parameter for designing and
assessing the effectiveness of flood protection systems, as well as for determining the flood risk
for properties and infrastructure in flood-prone areas.

4P stream and downstream

In the context of water and floods, "4P stream" and "downstream" refer to the flow of water
within a river or stream system.
"4P stream" is a term used to describe a river or stream that is characterized by four key
elements: Power, Path, Pools, and Riffles. Power refers to the force of the water, Path refers to
the direction of the flow, Pools are deeper areas of water, and Riffles are shallower areas where
the water flows more rapidly over rocks and other obstructions. A 4P stream can be more
prone to flooding than other streams because of its unique characteristics.
"Downstream" refers to the direction that water flows within a river or stream system. It is the
direction that the water is moving towards the mouth of the river, where it flows into a larger
body of water, such as an ocean or a lake. In the context of floods, downstream areas are often
the most vulnerable to flooding because the water from upstream areas flows towards them,
causing the water levels to rise. This can result in flash floods and other types of flooding that
can be dangerous and destructive.
Right Bank and Left Bank
The right bank is the bank of the river that is located on the right-hand side when facing
downstream. Similarly, the left bank is the bank that is located on the left-hand side when
facing downstream. These terms are used to help describe the location of features such as
towns, bridges, and other landmarks along the river.
For example, if a town is located on the right bank of a river, it means that the town is situated
on the side of the river that is to the right when looking downstream. Likewise, if a bridge spans
the river from the left bank to the right bank, it means that the bridge crosses the river from
the side that is to the left when looking downstream to the side that is to the right.

Procedure of water supply:

Water supply systems can be classified into different types based on the methods used to
transport water from its source to the users. The three main types of water supply systems are
gravity systems, pumping systems, and dual systems.
Gravity System:
In a gravity system, water flows naturally from a higher elevation source (such as a reservoir or
elevated tank) to lower elevation points (such as households, businesses, or industrial users)
through a network of pipes. The system relies on gravity to provide the necessary pressure to
move water through the pipes and to the users. Gravity systems are typically used in areas
where the terrain is sloping, and the water source is located at a higher elevation than the
users.
Pumping System:
In a pumping system, water is transported from a lower elevation source (such as a well or a
river) to higher elevation points (such as households, businesses, or industrial users) using
mechanical pumps. The pumps provide the necessary pressure to move the water through the
pipes and to the users. Pumping systems are typically used in areas where the terrain is flat or
the water source is located at a lower elevation than the users.
Dual System:
In a dual system, both gravity and pumping systems are used to transport water from the
source to the users. Gravity is used to transport water from the source to a certain elevation
point, and then pumping is used to move the water to higher elevation points. Dual systems are
typically used in areas where the terrain is uneven, and the water source is located at varying
elevations.
In all these systems, it is important to ensure that the water is treated and disinfected before it
is distributed to the users. This helps to prevent the spread of water-borne diseases and to
ensure that the water is safe for consumption.
WORK TO BE DONE FOR SURVEYING OF A WATER SUPPLY PROJECT
Surveying for a water supply project involves several essential tasks to ensure accurate
planning, design, and implementation:
1. Topographic Survey
This involves mapping the natural and man-made features of the project area, including terrain,
vegetation, existing structures, and water bodies. It provides crucial information for designing
the layout of the water supply system.
2. Hydrological Survey
This assesses the water resources available in the project area, including rivers, streams, lakes,
and groundwater sources. It helps determine the quantity and quality of water available for the
project.
3. Geotechnical Survey
This evaluates the soil and geological conditions of the project site to assess its suitability for
construction. It helps identify potential challenges such as unstable soil or rock formations that
may affect the project's infrastructure.
4. Land Acquisition Survey
If land acquisition is necessary for the project, this survey identifies the parcels of land needed
and determines boundaries and ownership details.
5. Utility Survey
This locates existing underground utilities such as pipelines, cables, and sewer lines within the
project area to avoid conflicts during construction.
6. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
This evaluates the potential environmental impacts of the project, including its effects on
ecosystems, water quality, and wildlife. It helps identify mitigation measures to minimize
adverse effects.
7. Socioeconomic Survey
This assesses the potential social and economic impacts of the project on local communities,
including employment opportunities, displacement of residents, and changes in land use.
8. Water Quality Testing
This involves collecting water samples from various sources within the project area and
analyzing them to determine their chemical and biological properties. It helps ensure that the
water supplied meets regulatory standards for human consumption.
Curve
In engineering, a curve refers to a line or shape that is not straight and is used to describe the
geometry of objects such as roads, railways, pipes, and structures. Curves are defined by their
radius of curvature, degree of curvature, and other parameters that are critical to designing and
constructing engineering projects. Curves are also used to model and analyze the behavior of
materials, structures, and systems in response to different types of loads or forces.

Simple circular curve

A simple circular curve is a type of curve in engineering that is defined by a constant radius of
curvature throughout its length. It is commonly used in the design of roads, railways, and other
transportation systems to smoothly connect two straight sections of the roadway or track. The
simple circular curve is characterized by its degree of curvature, which is the central angle
subtended by an arc of the curve equal to one degree along its length. The radius of curvature,
which is the distance from the center of the circle to the center of the curve, can be calculated
from the degree of curvature and other geometric parameters.
SIMPLE CALCULATION ON CURVE
Length of Back Tangent
∆
Tangent Distance (T) = 𝑅 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( )
2
𝜋𝑅∆
Length of curve (L) =
180°
∆ ∆
Mid -ordinate length = 𝑅 − 𝑅 cos ( ) = 𝑅 [1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )]
2 2
∆
Apex distance = 𝑅 [𝑠𝑒𝑐 ( ) − 1]
2

Length of long chord = 2𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (∆2)

Purpose of simple circular curve

Transition Curve
A transition curve is a type of curve in engineering that is used to gradually transition the curvature of a
road, railway, or other transportation system from a straight section to a circular curve or vice versa.
The transition curve is designed to provide a smooth and gradual change in curvature, which helps to
reduce the forces acting on the vehicle or train and improve the safety and comfort of the ride.
Transition curves are typically characterized by their degree of curvature, which varies along the length
of the curve, and their length, which is determined based on the speed and type of vehicle or train using
the curve.
L-Section Cross-Section
May vary; typically, two intersecting lines forming
Resembles the letter "L" right angles

Usually asymmetrical Can be symmetrical or asymmetrical

Widely used in various engineering applications
Commonly used in construction for beams, columns, including bridges, buildings, and mechanical
etc. components

Offers strength primarily in one direction Provides strength in multiple directions

Offers support along its length and one flange Provides support along multiple axes

Limited flexibility in terms of usage scenarios More versatile due to varied shapes and designs

Material consumption depends on the specific

May require less material depending on design design and application

Generally stable under loads in the direction of its

length Stability depends on design and load distribution

Simpson's Rule Trapezoidal Rule

Less accurate approximation compared to

More accurate approximation of definite integrals Simpson's

Requires an even number of intervals Can work with any number of intervals

Uses a quadratic polynomial for approximation Uses a linear polynomial for approximation

Typically has a smaller error than the trapezoidal rule Typically has a larger error than Simpson's rule

More computationally complex Less computationally complex

Suitable for smooth functions with even intervals Suitable for general functions with any interval
 Bridge Culvert

A structure designed to span a physical obstacle, A drainage structure that allows water to flow under
such as a river or a valley. a roadway, railway, or other type of embankment.

Typically longer and wider than culverts, with a span Typically shorter and narrower than bridges, with a
of 20 feet or more. span of less than 20 feet.

Often require more planning, design, and

Often require less planning, design, and construction
construction time due to their larger size and
time due to their smaller size and simpler structure.
complexity.

Can accommodate multiple lanes of traffic, Can only accommodate a single lane of traffic, and
pedestrians, and sometimes even trains. are primarily designed for water flow.

Can be built using a variety of materials, including Are usually made of concrete or other precast
concrete, steel, wood, and masonry. materials.

Can be found in a wide range of locations, from Are typically found in rural areas, where the water
urban areas to rural landscapes. flow is less intense.

Require regular inspections and maintenance to Require regular cleaning and maintenance to prevent
ensure structural integrity and safety. debris buildup and blockages.

May have architectural or aesthetic features, such as

Generally have a simple, utilitarian design that
decorative railings or arches, to enhance their
prioritizes functionality over aesthetics.
appearance.