Lecture Notes on Wireless and Mobile Communications CTE 322

1.1 Brief History

A mobile phone is a portable telephone that does not use a wired connection. It is also known as
a wireless phone, cell phone, or cellular telephone. In many developing countries, mobile
technology is a substitute for traditional fixed services. Worldwide the number of cellular phone
users in the years 1984, 1994, and 1997 were 25,000, 16 million, and 50 million, respectively. In
2000, the number of wireless users became equal to the wired users and this number increased to
1.9 billion worldwide in the year 2005. The number of mobile users increased to 3 billion by
2007, which is almost half of the world’s population. By 2011, the estimated mobile phone
subscriber base in India will be 298 million and India will become the second largest country in
the world, next to China. The resulting cellular penetration rate is 23.9 per cent of the nation’s
population. Mobile technology extends access to formerly unreserved population groups such as
the urban poor and rural users. In addition to the standard voice function, current mobile phones
also support latest services such as short message service (SMS), general packet radio service
(GPRS), and multimedia service (MMS) for sending and receiving photos and videos, e-mail,
packet switching, wireless access protocol (WAP), and Bluetooth. The cellular concept was
developed by Bell Labs in 1960s–1970s.

1.2 Cellular Networks

A cell is a geographical area served by a single antenna providing a set of frequencies. The
cellular network provides wireless connection between mobile phones or between a mobile
phone and landline phone using radio waves. These mobile phones connect to the cellular
networks which are further connected to the public switched telephone network (PSTN).
The cellular network uses a number of low-power transmitters called base
stations (BSs) and each BS covers a unit area called a “cell”.

So the term cell refers to the coverage area and cell site refers to the BS location. The cellular
network concept is against the use of a single high-power transmitter with antenna mounted
on a tall tower as is the case in the early mobile radios (shown in Figure. 1.1(a)) to cover
a large area. The difficulty in the early mobile radio systems was the reuse of same
frequencies throughout the system resulting in significant interference and lot of
bandwidth being dedicated to a single call. The cellular system shown in Figure 1.1(b) uses a
number of low-power transmitters called BSs to cover same area and to avoid the above
difficulties.

The limitations in early mobile radio systems are as follows:

1. High-power transmitters were used to cover very large area.

2. Inefficient use of allocated radio spectrum.
3. If a user leaves the coverage area, they had to reinitiate the call on a different frequency
channel.
 (a) Early mobile radio system: Large zone (b) Cellular system: small zone
Figure 1.1 Early mobile radio system and cellular system

1.3 Cellular standards and evolution of mobile from 1G–4G

The service providers must use one of the approved cellular standards for developing the cellular
network in that region. These standards are mutually agreed upon rules adopted by the industry
on how the cell phone system operates. These standards describe the air interface that is how cell
phones and BSs must communicate with each other. These mutually agreed upon standards
change over time, as technology progresses. For clear understanding of the evolution of analogue
and digital cellular technology, their broad features are illustrated in Figure 1.2.

Broad Band

4G

Multimedia

2.5
G

Digital

AMP
S
1980 1990 2000 2000+ 2003+ 2010–2015 Years

Figure 1.2 Evolution of cellular systems

1.3.2 First Generation (1G)
The first 1G mobile phone system was introduced in 1980 in the United States, and it
was an analogue technology. In 1G, speech was converted to an FM signal and transmitted back
and forth from user phones. Examples of 1G system are analogue mobile phone systems (AMPS)
and total access communication systems (TACS). The AMPS was implemented in North
America and the TACS was used in Europe. In AMPS, two 25-MHz bands are allocated. One
25-MHz band is for communication from BS to mobile unit and the other for communication
from mobile unit to BS. The following are the limitations of 1G:
• Supports only speech
• Low traffic capacity
• Unreliable handover
• Long-call setup time and frequent call drops
• Inefficient use of bandwidth and poor battery life
• Poor voice quality and large phone size
• Allows users to make voice calls in 1 country only

1.3.3 Second Generation (2G)

The need for more user capacity per cell led to the development of 2G technologies. 2G systems
are digital cellular systems and were introduced in the late 1980s and were in use till the late
1990s. 2G technology supports data, speech, FAX, SMS, and WAP services. The frequency
bands used by GSM are 890–960 MHz and 1710–1880 MHz. In the 890–960 MHz frequency
band, the band at 890–915 MHz is dedicated to uplink communications from the mobile station
(MS) to the BS, and the band at 935–960 MHz is used for the downlink communications from
the BS to the MS. 2G digital technology is divided into two standards: time division multiple
access (TDMA) and code-division multiple access (CDMA). Global system for mobile (GSM)
was the first commercially operated digital cellular system and uses TDMA/frequency-division
duplexing (FDD) IS-95 is commonly referred to as CDMA one standard and is used in North
America and some parts of Asia. 2G cellular networks used digital technology and provided
enhanced services (e.g. messaging, caller-id, etc.). There were two 2G standards that service
providers could choose between GSM based on TDMA and IS-95 based on CDMA.
The following are limitations of 2G:
• Provides low data rates ranging from 9.6 kbps to 28.8 kbps.
• Circuit-switched network, where the end systems are dedicated for the entire call session. This
causes reduction in usage of bandwidth and resources.
• Too many 2G standards globally (e.g. GSM, CDMA, PDC {Personal Digital Cellular}, and
PHS {Personal Handy-phone System})

1.3.4 Interim Generation (2.5G)

The need for increased throughput data rates in data transfer (such as web browsing and e-mail)
led to the evolution of 2.5G which is between 2G and 3G. The mobile technology using General
Packet Radio Services (GPRS) standard has been termed as 2.5G. The 2.5G was started in 1998
with added GPRS and enhanced data rates for GSM evolution (EDGE). In addition to the hype
text transfer protocol (HTTP), it supports the wireless access protocol (WAP) through which web
pages can be viewed on the small screen of a mobile phone or a handheld device, which led to
mobile commerce (m-commerce). Most of the present cellular systems are 2.5G. They offer
enhanced services over second generation systems (e.g. e-mailing, web-browsing, etc.).
1.3.5 Third Generation (3G)
The need for high-speed internet access, live video communications, and simultaneous data and
voice transmission led to the development of 3G cellular networks. The 3G technology has
added multimedia facilities to 2.5G phones. 3G operates in the frequency band of 1710–2170
MHz, and provides high transmission rates from 348 Kbps in a moving vehicle to 2 Mbps for
stationary or mobile users. The aim of 3G systems is to provide communication services from
person-to-person at any place (global roaming) and at any time through any medium with
guaranteed quality of service. Examples of 3G system are universal mobile telecommunication
systems (UMTS) and international mobile telecommunications at 2,000 MHz (IMT-2000).
UMTS are designed to provide different types of data rates, based on the following
circumstances: up to 144 kbps for moving vehicles, 384 kbps for pedestrians, and 2 Mbps for
indoor or stationary users. UMTS will integrate all the services offered by different mobile
communication systems such as mobile phone, cordless telephone, and satellite radio in one
service. Japan was the first country to introduce 3G system IMT-2000 network nationally, and in
Japan the transition to 3G was completed in the year 2006. Figure 1.3 illustrates the mobile
phone samples of 1G, 2G, and 3G cellular network generations. Figure 1.3(a) is the first
handheld device from Motorola Company which was available in 1984 in 1G network. Figure
1.3(b) is Ericsson GH218 which was introduced in 1994 and operated in 2G networks. Figure
1.3(c) is the LG U8110 that was introduced in 2004 and is operating in 3G networks.

The following are the drawbacks of 3G system:

• High bandwidth requirement
• High spectrum licensing fees
• Expense and bulk size of 3G phones
• Lack of 2G mobile user buying for 3G wireless service
• Lack of network coverage because it is still a new service
• High prices of 3G mobile services in some countries
Presently, service providers are setting up 3G cellular systems. The idea behind 3G is to have a
single network standard instead of the different types adopted in the United States, Europe, and
Asia. 3G offers higher data rates than 2.5G. 3G allows users to send/receive pictures, video clips,
and so on.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 1.3 Samples of mobile phones from the three generations

1.3.6 Fourth Generation (3G)
Even though the 3G networks have been deployed since 2001, the true broadband access will be
achieved with the 4G mobile phones. The 4G mobile communications will have transmission
rates up to 20 Mbps higher than that of 3G. 4G technology is expected to provide very smooth
global roaming universally with lower cost. Theoretically, 4G is set to deliver 100 Mbps to a
roaming mobile device globally, and up to 1 Gbps to a stationary device. 4G will bring almost
the perfect real world wireless internetworking called “WWWW: WorldWide Wireless Web”
With the expected features in mind, 4G allows for video conferencing, streaming picture perfect
video (e.g. tele-medicine and tele-geo processing application) and much more. Since the 4G is a
research item for the next-generation wide-area cellular radio, the technology is expected to be
available around 2012–2015. The following modulation techniques are proposed to be used in
the 4G cellular phones.
• Variable spreading factor-orthogonal frequency and code division multiplexing (VSFOFCDM).
• Variable spreading factor code-division multiple access (VSF- CDMA).
A short history of cellular evolution from 1G to 4G cellular systems is shown in Table 1.1. From
Table 1.1 we can observe that the 4G is not a single defined technology or standard, but rather a
collection of technologies and protocols aimed at creating fully packet-switched networks
optimized for data. Another major difference between 3G and 4G is that unlike the 3G networks
which are a combination of circuit-switched and packet-switched networks, 4G will be based on
packet switching only. This will allow low-latency data transmission.

Table 1.1 History of 1G, 2G, 3G, and 4G technologies

Various generations
Technology 1G 2G 2.5G 3G 4G
Design began 1970 1980 1985 1990 2000
Implementation 1984 1991 1999 2002 2012–2015
Service Analogue Digital voice High-capacity High-capacity Higher capacity,
voice packets, MMS broadband completely IP,
data Multimedia
Multiple access FDMA TDMA, TDMA, CDMA CDMA OFDMA
CDMA
Standards AMPS, CDMA, GPRS, EDGE WCDMA, Single standard
TACS, NMT GSM, PDC CDMA2000
Bandwidth 1.9 kbps 14.4 kbps 384 kbps 2 Mbps 200 Mbps
Core network PSTN PSTN PSTN, Packet Packet Internet
network network
1.3.7 Current status of cellular radio
Tremendous changes are occurring in the area of wireless communications. With the rising
demand for mobile communications, 3G systems have emerged, providing higher date rate to
facilitate new multimedia applications such as video telephony and wireless Internet access.
There are three primary standards that comprise 3G technology: W-CDMA, CDMA2000, and
TD-CDMA. The mobile phone of yesterday is rapidly turning into a sophisticated mobile device
capable of more applications than PCs. For example, the data rates provided by 3G networks
enable a user to enjoy wireless access to the Internet at speeds up to 1.8 Mbps. Further
enhancements in high speed downlink packet access (HSDPA) modulation schemes will soon
increase this speed to greater than 10 Mbps.

Presently, we see 3G cell phones hitting the markets. In China, the 3G service is already in
existence. The 3G has also reached India recently. The existence of several diverse 3G standards
limits seamless global roaming between different cellular networks for a mobile user with a
single handset. In addition, there is a fundamental difference between wireless cellular networks
(1G, 2G, or 3G) and wireless data networks such as WLANs and PANs. The difference is that
wireless cellular systems are circuit-switched while wireless data networks are packet-switched.
Convergence issues for these differences between the wireless cellular systems and the wireless
data networks will be addressed in the design of 4G cellular networks. It is projected that 4G
networks (LTE, WiMaX) will provide users with seamless wireless access to voice, data, and
video services irrespective of which wireless network they belong to. A 4G system will be able
to provide a comprehensive IP solution where voice, data, and streamed multimedia can be given
to users on an “anytime, anywhere” basis, and at higher data rates than previous generations. 4G
will be capable of providing data rates between 100 Mbps and 1 Gbps both indoors and outdoors.
As the 2G was a total replacement of the 1G networks and handsets and the 3G was a total
replacement of 2G networks and handsets, in the same way the 4G is also a complete
replacement of the current 3G networks and handsets. The ITU regulatory and standardization
bodies are working for commercial deployment of 4G networks roughly in the 2012–2015 time
scale.
1.4 Cellular Geometry
The main reason for defining cells in a cellular land mobile radio system is to outline areas in
which specific channels and specific cell sites are used. However, designers have realized that
visualizing all cells as having the same geometrical shape helps to ease the design of cellular
systems, not only in locating transmitter sites relative to one another and making economical use
of equipment, but also in making the adaptation to traffic much easier. From this point of view,
cellular geometry helps to ease the assessment of spectral efficiency of various cellular systems,
in particular to calculate the significant co-channel interference (CCI) in the system.

1.4.1 Cell shapes

There are only certain patterns of cells or tessellations which can be repeated over a plane: the
regular hexagon, the square, the circle, and the triangle. The regular hexagon is favored by
system designers for the following reasons:
• It provides the best approximation to the circular Omni-directional radio patterns achieved in
practice.
• It is more economical to use since a hexagonal layout requires fewer cells and hence fewer
stations.
• It combines ease of geometry with the practical realization of overlapping circles.
• For a given distance between the center of a polygon and its farthest perimeter points, the
hexagon has the largest area, and it almost approximates a circular radiation pattern.
Hexagons are generally used to represent the cells due to geometry considerations and
calculation purposes.

For example, in Figure 1.4 hexagons closely approximate the circle, which is used as a coverage
area by a BS that has transmission radius (range) R.

Figure 1.4 Circle to hexagonal cell shape approximation

1.5 Introduction to the Cellular concept
In the beginning, there were no handoffs and the cellular system’s size depended on how much
power the centralized BS could transmit and receive. Users who stepped out of range of one
system had to re-establish the call in the next system (Figure. 1.5). The capacity of these systems
was severely limited because only a small number of radio channels (available bandwidth) were
available for mobile systems. Therefore, they had to find a way to reuse radio channels in order
to carry more than one conversation. Repeatedly reusing the radio frequencies over a given
geographical area provides number of simultaneous conversations. The basic idea of the cellular
concept is frequency reuse.

Dropped call area User

had to re- establish
calls

Figure 1.5 Conventional mobile radio service

1.6 Improving coverage and capacity in cellular systems

The main objective of cellular systems design is to handle as many calls as possible (called
capacity in cellular terminology) in a given bandwidth in the most efficient way with reliability
and quality of service in telephony. As demand increases, number of channels per cell become
insufficient. Therefore, new cellular design techniques are needed to provide more channels per
unit coverage area. To achieve this objective, the various techniques developed to expand the
capacity of system are as follows:

• Frequency reuse: Use of radio channels on the same carrier frequency to cover different areas
that are separated from one another by sufficient distances
• Adding new channels: New channels are added between mobile unit & base station.
• Frequency borrowing: Frequencies are taken from adjacent cells by congested cells.
• Cell splitting: Cells in areas of high usage can be split into smaller cells.
• Cell Sectoring: Cells are divided into a number of wedge-shaped sectors, each with their own
set of channels.
• Repeaters for range extension: Use retransmitters to cover areas subjected to fading.
• Zone microcells: BS antennas move to buildings and lamp posts
1.7 Frequency reuse
Frequency reuse refers to the use of radio channels on the same carrier frequency to cover
different areas that are separated from one another by sufficient distances. Since the users in
different geographical areas (cells) may simultaneously use the same frequency, this technique
maximizes the number of mobile phones served in a given geographical area and spectrum
efficiency. Frequency reuse causes CCI which is a trade-off link quality versus subscriber
capacity.

The total number of frequencies/channels available in a cellular system are allocated to each cell
by means of frequency reuse technique so as to minimize the co-channel and adjacent channel
interference while meeting the performance requirements both in terms of received call quality
as well as traffic capacity in these cells. The distribution of the frequency channels in a cellular
network is dependent on several parameters such as cellular geometry, signal interference, and
signal propagation characteristics. The assignment of frequency channels in the cellular concept
is fixed, that is, a set of frequency channels is statically allotted to a cell. The same set is reused
in another cell distant enough to allow the use of the frequency channels with acceptable signal
interference.

Cells that use the same set of frequency channels are called co-channel cells and the distance
between them is called co-channel reuse distance. The total number of frequency carriers
allotted to a network operator is divided into sets. Each set is assigned to a cell inside a cluster of
cells. Therefore, a cluster is a group cells in which each cell is allocated a unique set of
frequencies. This cluster of cells forms a pattern. The pattern is reused according to the co-
channel reuse distance. The choice of the number of cells per cluster is mainly governed by co-
channel interference considerations. The frequency reuse concept is explained in the following
section.

For a better understanding of the frequency reuse concept, consider a cellular system with a total
of S duplex channels available for use in a cluster. If each cell is allocated a set of k channels (k <
S) and the cluster size is N, then the total number of available radio channels can be expressed as

S=k×N (1.1)

Each cluster uses the same number of channels. If a cluster is replicated M times within the
system, then the total number of duplex channels, C, which is a measure of capacity of the
cellular system is given by

Cellular system capacity C = M × k × N = M × S (1.2)

The following observations can be made using Equation (2.2). The capacity of a cellular system
is directly proportional to the number of times a cluster is replicated in a fixed area.

The factor N is called the cluster size and it is typically equal to 4, 7, or 12.

If the cluster size N is reduced keeping the cell size constant, it requires more clusters to
cover a given area, hence more capacity is achieved. A larger cluster size N causes the ratio
between the cell radius and the distance between co-channel cells to decrease, leading to
weaker co-channel interference. Figure 1.6 shows the reuse pattern of a cluster of size 7.
 For the same cell size at a given area, N decreases M increases C increases.

C C

Figure 1.6 Reuse pattern of cluster size, N =7

Problem 1.
We consider a cellular system in which the total available voice channels to handle the traffic are
1,200. The area of each cell is 9 km2 and the total coverage area of the system is 3,600 km2.

a) Calculate the system capacity if the cluster size, N is 4.

b) Calculate the system capacity if the cluster size is 7. Does decreasing the reuse factor N,
increases the system capacity? Explain.
c) How many times should a cluster of size 7 be replicated to cover the entire cellular area?

Solution 1
Total available channels = 1,200
Cell area = 9 km2
Total coverage area = 3,600 km2

a) N = 4
Area of a cluster with cluster size N = 4 is 4 × 9 = 36 km2
Number of clusters for covering total area with N equals 4 = 3,600/36 = 100
Number of channels per cell = 1,200/4 = 300
System capacity = 100 × 1,200 = 120,000 channels

b) N = 7
Area of a cluster N = 7 is 7 × 9 = 63 km2
Number of clusters for covering total area with N equals 7 = 3,600/63 = 57.14 ~ 57
Number of channels per cell = 1,200/7 = 171.42 ~ 171
System capacity = 57 × 1,200 = 68,400 channels
It is evident that when we decrease the value of N from 7 to 4, we increase the system capacity
from 68,400 to 120,000 channels. Thus, decreasing the reuse factor (N) increases the system
capacity.
c) To cover the entire circular area = Total coverage area/Area of a cluster with reuse N = 7
=3,600 km2/63 km2 = 57 times.

1.7.1 Spectrum efficiency and propagation path loss

Figure 1.7(a) shows a single high power transmitter that can support 100 voice channels covering
a given coverage area. The same coverage area is divided into seven smaller areas (cells) as
shown in Figure 1.7(b) and each cell supported by low power transmitters. The available
spectrum of 100 voice channels is divided into four distinct groups of 25 channels each. If the
allocation of channel groups to cells is in such a way that the cells 1 and 7 uses group1 channels,
cells 2 and 4 uses group 2 channels, cell 3 uses group 3 as well as 5.
Then the total number of channels available in the specified cellular system can be computed as:
Total number of channels allocated to all cells = number of channels per channel group ×
number of distinct cells.

3
1

6 4

(a) Early mobile radio system (b) Frequency reuse in a cellular

Covering given service area system

Figure 1.7 Illustration of frequency reuse concept and spectrum efficiency

= 25 × 7. Hence, total number of channels available = 175 channels.

From the above example, it can be concluded as follows:
• Total number of channels that can be supported by the given cellular system is increased to 175
from 100 to cover the same service area.
• Frequency reuse concept can significantly increase the spectrum efficiency, thereby increasing
the system capacity.

Propagation path loss: The propagation path loss of a signal is a function of several factors, such
as environment, location, antenna type, antenna height, and so on. By considering
omnidirectional antennas, the propagation path loss in a mobile radio environment is normally
taken as 40 dB per decade, that is, the signal will suffer a 40 dB loss for each 10 km. The
difference in power reception at two different distances and would be:

( ) (1.3)

where is the received carrier power at receiver 1, is the received carrier power at
receiver 2, is the distance measured from the transmitter to receiver 1, and is the distance
measured from the transmitter to receiver 2.

When expressed in decibels, Equation (1.3) becomes

( ) ( )

(1.4)

Problem 2
Calculate the change in received signal powers (in decibels) in mobile radio propagation
condition at two different distance points when the second distance point is twice the distance of
the first point.

Solution 2
Let the received carrier signal power at a distance be and at a distance be . The
change in received signal strengths (in decibels), in mobile radio propagation, between the
distance points and is given by

( )

Here, (Given)

Therefore, ( ) ( )

Hence,

From this result we observe that signal strength decays at the rate of 12dB/octave in the mobile
radio-propagation environment condition.

Under the same conditions, but in free space, the propagation path loss would be of 20 dB/10
km. The propagation path loss will vary as:
 (1.5)

or in decibels
( ) ( ) ( ) (1.6)

Where is the propagation path loss factor, is a constant, and is the distance from the
transmitter to the receiver. The parameter usually lies between 2 and 5; it cannot be lower than
2, the free-space condition.

1.7.2 Frequency reuse factor

One important characteristic of cellular networks is the reuse of frequencies in different cells.
The cells using the same set of channels (or frequencies) are known as co-channel cells. For
example, in Figure 1.6, the cells using channels A are co-channel cells. The distance between co-
channel cells is known as co-channel distance or frequency reuse distance and the interference
caused by the radiation from these cells is referred to as co-channel interference.

By reuse frequencies, a high capacity can be achieved. However, the reuse distance has to be
high enough, so that the interference caused by subscribers using the same frequency (or an
adjacent frequency) in another cells is sufficiently low.

For proper functioning of any cellular system, the co-channel interference needs to be
minimized. For example, to guarantee an appropriate speech quality, the carrier-to-interference
power-ratio (CIR) has to exceed a certain threshold which is 9 dB for the GSM system.
Unlike thermal noise which can be overcome by increasing the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), co-
channel interference cannot be overcome by simply increasing the carrier power because an
increase in carrier power increases the interference to neighboring co-channel cells. To reduce
co-channel interference, co-channel cells must be physically separated by a minimum distance.

Therefore, minimization of co-channel interference requires a minimum co-channel distance;

that is, the distance cannot be smaller than this minimum distance.

In a cellular system of equal cell size, the co-channel interference is a function of a frequency
reuse factor or co-channel reuse ratio (q). The frequency reuse factor of a cellular system is
defined by the ratio of distance between the frequency reusing cell sites (D) and the cell radius
(R) of the serving cell sites and is known as D/R ratio (Fig. 1.8), and given by:

√ (1.7)
 4

Figure 1.8 Frequency reuse factor or co-channel reuse ratio (q)

Problem 3
As a total of 40 MHz of bandwidth is allocated to a particular frequency division duplex cellular
telephone system which uses two 25 kHz simplex channels to provide full duplex voice and
control channels. Compute the number of channels available per cell if a system uses (a) four-
cell reuse, (b) seven-cell reuse, (c) 12-cell reuse. If 1 MHz of the allocated spectrum is dedicated
to control channels, determine an equitable distribution of control channels and voice channels in
each cell for each of the three systems.

Solution 3
Given bandwidth = 40 MHz
Channels bandwidth = 25 kHz × 2 simplex channels = 50 kHz/duplex channel
Total available channels = 40,000/50 = 800 channels.

(a) For N = 4, total number of channels available per cell = 800/4 = 200 channels
(b) For N = 7, total number of channels available per cell = 800/7 ≈ 114 channels
(c) For N = 12, total number of channels available per cell = 800/12 ≈ 67 channels
For 1 MHz, the total available channels = 1 MHz/50 kHz = 20 channels.
For N = 4, total number of channels per cell = 20/4 = 5 channels.
For N = 7, total number of channels per cell = 20/7 ≈ 3 channels.
For N = 12, total number of channels per cell = 20/12 ≈ 2 channels.
1.7.3 Co-channel interference

For each cell, a set of frequencies is allocated. Cells that use the same set of frequencies are
denoted as co-channel cells and the interference received from co-channel cells is called co-
channel interference (CCI). The CCI occurs mainly due to reusing an identical frequency
channel.
Unlike thermal noise, CCI can be overcome by increasing the carrier-to-interference ratio (CIR),
defined to be the ratio of the desired average signal power at receiver to the total average
interference power. This ratio is comparable with the signal-to-noise ratio and can be used as a
performance measure in non-mobile communication systems. The signal-to-interference ratio
(SIR) should then be greater than a specified threshold for proper signal operation.

This has become a major problem in the mobile cellular network. To reduce the CCI, minimum
frequency reuse distance must be used. If all cell sizes are fixed, CCI is independent of the
transmitted power of each cell. One method to reduce the CCI is by tilting down the BS antenna
beam as shown in Figure 1.9 due to which the power outside the cell causing CCI reduces.

Figure 1.9 CCI reduction using beam tilting

1.7.3.1 Method of locating co-channel cells

To locate the nearest co-channel cells, mark the center of cell as (0,0) for which co-
channel cells are required to be located. Define the unit distance as the distance of
centers of two adjacent cells. The nearest co-channel cell in a hexagonal cellular
structure to the cell under consideration can be located using shifting parameters (i, j).
The two parameters i and j measure the number of nearest neighboring cells between co-
channel cells in a hexagonal geometry, where i and j are separated by 60o as shown in
Figure 1.10. The shift parameters can have any value 0,1,2,3, and so on. The important
steps to be followed now are as follows:
• Move i number of cells along any chain of hexagons.
• Turn 60o counter clockwise and move j number of cells along the chain that lies
in this new heading.
The method of locating co-channel cells in a cellular system using the above procedure is
shown in Figure 1.11 where co-channels are marked with letter A. Figure 1.11 illustrates the
regular hexagonal geometry of one co-located cell. The parameters i and j measure the
number of nearest neighboring cells between co-channel cells. In this example, N= 19
for i= 3 and j=2.

Figure 1.10 Shift parameters i and j in a hexagonal geometry

Figure 1.11 Locating co-channel cells in a (N = 19) hexagonal geometry for i =3, j = 2
1.8 Cell Splitting
Cell splitting is the process of dividing the radio coverage of a cell site into two or
more new cell sites. Cell splitting is performed to provide additional capacity
(number of channels) within the region of the original cell site by increasing the
number of BSs.

Cell splitting increases the capacity of a cellular system since it increases the number of times
that channels are reused.

By making these the new cells to have smaller radius than the original cells and by installing
these smaller cells between the existing cells, capacity increases due to the additional number of
channels per unit area. Cell splitting achieves capacity improvement by essentially re-scaling the
system.

By decreasing the radius R and keeping the co-channel reuse ratio D/R unchanged, cell splitting
increases the number of channels per unit area.

Splitting a cell provides more number of cells, reduction in the cell size, and
corresponding reduction in the antenna height and transmitter power. More number
of cells gives more number of clusters, resulting in more number of channels and
high user capacity. Figure 1.12 illustrates how cells can be divided if higher capacity
is needed in a spot. We need to go locally to smaller cluster size (N). Figure 1.12
consists of three clusters and each cluster is a group of seven cells. To cover a smaller
area, the radio coverage area of large cells sites are split by adjusting the power level
and/or using reduced antenna height. The radio coverage area of the cell site can be
reduced by changing the RF boundaries of the cell site. This is similar to placing the
cells farther apart and permitting new cells to be added. To use the cell resources
efficiently the smaller cells can be either activated or deactivated according to the traffic
patterns.

After cell splitting

Figure 1.12 Cell splitting before and after in 3 clusters of size 7

1.9 Sectoring
Sectoring is another way to increase capacity. In sectoring, a cell has the same coverage space
but instead of using a single omni-directional antenna that transmits in all directions, either three
or six directional antennas are used and each with beamwidth of about 120° or 60° as shown in
Figure 1.13.

Figure 1.13 A cell divided into (a) 120o and (b) 60o

When sectoring is employed, the channels allocated to a particular cell are divided among the
different sectors. It is done in such a way that channels assigned to a particular sector are always
at the same direction in the different cells. For example, group A of channels assigned to the
sector S2, group B of channels are assigned to the sector S1 at the top of all cells, and so on.
Each sector causes interference to the cells that are in its transmission angle only. Unlike the case
of no sectoring where six interfering co-channel cells from the first-tier co-channels cells cause
interference, with 120° sectoring, two or three co-channel cells cause interference and with 60°
sectoring, one or two co-channel cells cause interference. Figure 1.14 shows sectoring for a four-
cell pattern.

Figure 1.14 Sectoring for four-cell pattern

1.10 Range extension by the use of repeaters
The use of repeater in cellular mobile communication system is for extending the range of the
reception of the receiver. Especially, the repeater is used when it is hard for the transmitted
signal to reach up to the receiver set. Repeaters are directional in nature and simultaneously send
signals to and receive signals from a serving BS. Upon receiving signals from BSs in forward
link, the repeater amplifies and reradiates the BS signals to the specific coverage region.
Repeaters are being widely used to provide coverage into and around buildings, where coverage
has been traditionally weak. However, repeaters do not add any capacity to the system; they just
increase the reach of a BS or MS into “shadowed” areas.

Figure 1.15 show the scenario where a BS is unable to cover a difficult area because of
a valley. The solution is to install a repeater attached to the same BS.

Valley area, wit

Base station additional base station coverage
Coverage with a repeater

Figure 1.15 Range extension by the use of repeater

1.11 Microcell zone concept

By the use of sectorization technique, we can increase the system performance (i.e. quality of the
signal) but side by side, there will be a large increment of handoffs which results in the
increment of load on the switching and control link elements of the mobile system. So there must
be some technique for the solution of this problem. So a microcell zone concept is introduced
which leads to an increased capacity without any degradation in trunking efficiency caused by
sectoring (Fig. 1.16).
Figure 1.16 Microcell zone concept (with three microcells)

1.12 Handoff
Notion of handoff is a crucial component in cellular concept. The mobile users by definition are
mobile i.e. they can move around while using the phone. Hence the network should be able to
provide them continuous access as they move. This will not be a problem if the user is moving
within the same cell. But when the user moves from one cell to another, a handoff is required.
Handoff is the process of transferring an active call from one cell to another as the mobile unit
moves from the first cell to the other cell without disconnecting the call. When a mobile moves
into a different cell while the call is in progress, the mobile switching center (MSC)
automatically transfers the call to a new channel belonging to the new BS. Handoff operation
involves identifying a new BS along with the allocation of voice and control signals. Example of
a handoff process is given in steps with reference to mobile phone moving from one BS to
another as shown in Figure 1.17:
• A user is transmitting and receiving signals from a given BS (say BS1).
• Assume the user moves from the coverage area of one BS into the coverage area of a second
BS (BS2).
• BS1 notices that the signal from this user is degrading.
• BS2 notices that the signal from this user is improving.
 Figure 1.17 Call handoff process

Figure 1.18(a) depicts an improper handoff scenario between two BSs (i.e. BS1 and BS2). When
the mobile user in a car is at point A in the coverage area of BS1, then the received signal
strength (RSS) is above the threshold level as shown in Figure 1.18(a). But if the mobile user in
the car is moving towards point B in the coverage area of BS2, then the RSS received by the
mobile due to the BS2 is dropped below the minimum acceptable threshold level and the call is
terminated. Figure 1.18(b) depicts the proper handoff scenario that has taken place when the
mobile user’s car is moving from BS1 to BS2. In this case, when the mobile user is at point A
under the coverage area of BS1, then the RSS is above the threshold level as shown in Figure
1.18(b). If the mobile user in the car is moving towards point B in the coverage area of BS2, then
the RSS received by the mobile due to the BS2 is well above minimum acceptable threshold
level, and therefore, the handoff is successful.

Figure 1.18(a) Improper handoff Figure 1.18(b) Proper handoff

1.12.1 Types of handoff
Handoffs are broadly classified into two categories:
• Hard handoff
• Soft handoff (SHO)

Hard handoff is “break-before-make”, meaning that the connection to the old BS is broken
before a connection to the new BS is made. Hard handoff occurs when handoff is made between
disjointed radio systems, different frequency assignments, or different air-interface
characteristics or technologies. Usually, the hard handoff can be further divided into two
different types: intracellular and intercellular handoffs.
A handoff made within the currently serving cell (e.g. by changing the frequency) is called an
intracellular handoff. A handoff made from one cell to another is referred to as an intercellular
handoff. SHO is “make-before–break”, meaning that the connection to the old BS is not broken
until a connection to the new BS is made. In fact, more than one BS is normally connected
simultaneously to the MS. There are different types of SHO. When sectors of the same BS are
involved in communication with the MS, the handoff is called softer handoff. When one sector
from each BS is involved, the handoff is called soft handoff. When multiple sectors of one BS
and one or more sectors of another BS communicate with the MS, the resulting SHO is called
softer-soft handoff.

1.12.2 Handoff strategies

Mobility in network is managed by two different handoff strategies, namely horizontal
handoff and vertical handoff. In case of horizontal handoff, handoff is between two
network access points or BSs that use the same wireless network access technology. The
handoff is purely due to mobility of the MS. In case of vertical handoff, handoff is
between two network access points or BSs that use the different wireless network access
technology. In the 1G analogue cellular systems, the RSS measurements are made by the
BS and are supervised by the MSC. In the 2G systems that use TDMA technology, mobile-
assisted handoff (MAHO) is used. In MAHO, every mobile phone measures the RSS
from the surrounding BS and continuously reports the RSS values to the corresponding BS.

1.13 Principle of operation of a cellular mobile system

The most common example of a cellular network is a mobile phone (cell phone) network. A
mobile phone is a portable telephone used to receive or make calls through a cell site (BS), or
transmitting tower. Electromagnetic waves are used to transfer signals to and from the cell
phone. Modern mobile phone networks use cells because radio frequencies are limited, shared
resource. Cell-sites and handsets change frequency under computer control and use low-power
transmitters so that a limited number of radio frequencies can be simultaneously used by many
callers with less interference. Figure 1.19 illustrates the cellular mobile network. A cellular
network is used by the mobile phone operator to achieve both coverage and capacity for their
subscribers. Large geographical areas are split into smaller cells to avoid line-of-sight (LOS)
signal loss and to support a large number of active phones in that area. All cell sites are
connected to telephone exchanges (or switches), which in turn connect to the public telephone
network.
Coverage area of cells: In cities, each cell site may have a range of up to approximately ½ mile,
while in rural areas the range could be as much as 5 miles. It is possible that in clear open areas,
a user may receive signals from a cell site 25 miles away.

MS

BSC BSC

MSC

Figure 1.19 Cellular network

1.13.1 Components of cellular network

A cellular network is formed by connecting the following five basic component units as shown
in Figure 1.19.

1. Mobile station (MS)

2. Base station (BS)
3. Mobile switching center (MSC)
4. Base station controller (BSC)
5. Public switched telephone network (PSTN)
The function of each network component is described in the following:
1. Mobile station (MS): MSs are usually a mobile phone. Each mobile phone contains a
transceiver (transmitter and receiver), an antenna, and control circuitry. Antenna converts the
transmitted RF signal into an EM wave and the received EM waves into an RF signal. The same
antenna is used for both transmission and reception, so there is a duplexer switch to multiplex the
same antenna.

2. Base station (BS): One of the important components in the cellular network is the BS. BS
provides direct communication with mobile phones and it defines the cell. When cells are
grouped together, a cluster is formed. Within a cluster, no channels are reused.

Two frequencies are required to establish communication between MS and BS: one from mobile
phone (MS) to BS (uplink channel) and inverse (downlink channel) as shown in Figure 1.20. A
group of BSs are in turn connected to a BSC. The BS is a transceiver station or system and
consists of a number of different elements.

• The first part of the BS is electronics section normally located in a container at the base of the
antenna tower. The various electronic devices for communicating with the mobile handsets
include RF amplifiers, radio transceivers, RF combiners, control, communication links, and
power supplies with backup.
• The second part of the BS is the antenna and the feeder to connect the antenna to the base
transceiver station itself. These antennas are visible on top of the masts and tall buildings
enabling them to cover the required area.
• It is important that the location, height, and orientation are all correct to ensure that the required
coverage is achieved.
• If the antenna is too low or in a poor location, there will be insufficient coverage, leaving a
coverage “hole”.
• If the antenna is too high and directed incorrectly, then the signal will be heard well beyond the
boundaries of the cell. This may result in interference with another cell using the same
frequencies.

Figure 1.20 Downlink and uplink channels

BS or cell site antenna: The two types of antennas used at BS include:

1. BS or cell site antenna: Either directional or Omni-directional antennas are used as BS

antennas in the wireless industry. The typical directional antenna is shown in Figure 1.21. The
cell site mast generally has three “faces” each with several frequency agile, directional antennas.
Each face covers approximately 120° of the cell and each face uses a different subset of the cell’s
assigned frequencies. Usually, the antenna tower is at the center of the cell.
 Figure 1.21 3 face directional antenna as base station antenna

2. Omni-directional antenna: Today, the Omni-directional antenna shown in Figure 1.22a at BSs
exists only in rural areas for the most part. This is because of the lower subscriber densities in
rural areas and the lack of requirement for the increased capacity that is afforded by using
directional antennas and sectorized BSs. Omni-directional BSs are noted for their use of Omni-
directional antennas which are slender, long, and tubular. There are always two receive antennas
at every BS, which are known as receive zero (Rx0) and receive one (Rx1). The purpose of
having two receive antennas at every BS is to provide for what is known as space diversity.
Space diversity, also known as receive diversity, compensates for Rayleigh fading in the uplink
to the BS. Space diversity is a tool used to optimize the signal received by a BS (transceiver); it
counteracts the negative effects of Rayleigh fading. It ensures that the best possible receive
signal is used to process all wireless calls. A typical antenna arrangement is shown in Figure
1.22(b).

Tx

Rx0 Rx1

Diversity receiver
Antennas

Cell base station

Figure 1.22 (a) Horizontal view of tower (b) Typical antenna arrangement
mounting of omni-directional BS antenna

3. Base station controller (BSC): A number of BSs are connected to a BSC as shown in Figure
1.23. An important function of BSC is that it manages the “handoff” from one BS to another as a
subscriber moves from cell-to-cell. The BSC contains logic to control each of the BSs. Also, a
group of BSCs are in turn connected to a MSC via microwave link or telephone lines.
 BSC

Figure 1.23 Interconnection of BS and BSC

4. Mobile switching center (MSC): The MSC is the control center for the cellular system. The
MSC is also known as mobile telephone switching office (MTSO). It coordinates the actions of
the BSs providing overall control and acts as a switch and connects into the PSTN. Various
functions performed by a MSC are as follows:
• It communicates with the BSs, routing calls and controlling them as required.
• It contains databases detailing the last known locations of the mobiles.
• It also contains facilities for authentication center allowing mobiles onto the network.
• It contains facilities to generate billing information for individual accounts.
The MSC, for the purpose of perming its functions, makes use of the three major components of
the network subsystem (NSS), that is HLR, VLR, and AUC.
a. Home location register (HLR): The HLR contains the information related to each mobile
subscriber, such as the type of subscription, services that the user can use the subscriber’s current
location, and the mobile equipment status. The database in the HLR remains intact and
unchanged until the termination of the subscription.
b. Visitor location register (VLR): The VLR comes into action once the subscriber enters the
coverage region. Unlike the HLR, the VLR is dynamic in nature and interacts with the HLR
when recoding the data of a particular mobile subscriber. When the subscriber moves to another
region, the database of the subscriber is also shifted to the VLR of the new region.
c. Authentication center (AUC): The AUC (or AC) is responsible for policing actions in the
network. This has all the data required to protect the network against false subscribers and to
protect the calls of regular subscribers. There are two major keys in the GSM standards: the
encryption of communications between mobile users and the authentication of the users. The
encryption keys are held both in the mobile equipment and the AUC and the information is
protected against unauthorized access.

5. PSTN is a cellular network that can be viewed as an interface between mobile units and a
telecommunication infrastructure (Fig. 1.24). Therefore, the PSTN network is nothing but the
land-based section of the network. It is necessary that the BSs are to be connected to a switching
network and that network is to be connected to other networks such as the PSTN, so that calls
can be made to and from mobile subscribers.
 MSC

MS MS

Figure 1.24 PSTN to mobile station connectivity

1.14 Common air interface

Communication between the BS and the mobiles is defined by a standard common air interface
(CAI) that specifies four different channels. The channels used for voice transmission from the
BS to mobiles are called forward voice channels (FVC) and the channels used for voice
transmission from mobiles to the BS are called reverse voice channels (RVC). The two channels
responsible for initiating mobile calls are the forward control channels (FOCC) and reverse
control channels (RECC). Control channels are often called setup channels because they are only
involved in setting up a call and moving it to an unused voice channel. Control channels transmit
and receive data messages that carry call initiation and service requests, and are monitored by
mobiles when they do not have a call in progress. FOCCs also serve as beacons which
continually broadcast all of the traffic requests for all mobiles in the system.

1.14.1 Call transfer operation from one mobile phone to another

The operation of one phone placing a call to another mobile phone and the operation
that takes place when a MS receives an incoming call is described in this section.
Before describing the call transfer operation to/from one mobile to another mobile, the
knowledge of the concept of duplex and control/voice channels must first be
understood.

1.14.2 The duplex concept

One of the key elements of any radio communications system is the way in which radio
communications are maintained in both directions. The various types of mobile radio
transmission systems in use are simplex, half duplex, and full duplex.

Simplex: Communication is possible only in one direction (e.g. paging systems).

Half duplex: Two-way communication, but uses the same radio channel for both transmission
and reception. User can only transmit or receive information (e.g. walkie-talkie).
Full duplex: Simultaneous two-way radio transmission and reception between the subscriber and
the BS (e.g. FDD and time-division duplexing [TDD]). Similar to landline phones, cellular
phones must also be full duplex. For cellular systems, it is necessary to talk or to send data in
both directions simultaneously and this places a number of constraints on the schemes that may
be used to control the transmission flow. Using the FDD and TDD duplexing schemes,
simultaneous two-way communication can be established.
FDD uses two separate frequencies for the uplink (from the mobile to the BS) and the downlink
(from the BS to the mobile).

TDD uses a single frequency to transmit signals in both the downlink and uplink directions. In
FDD information from the mobile handset to the BS is carried on one frequency and information
from the BS to the handset is carried on another (Fig. 1.25(a)). In TDD information from the
handset to the BS is transmitted at one time on one frequency and information from the BS to the
handset is transmitted at another time on the same frequency (Fig. 1.25(b)).

Problem 4
If the bandwidth allocated to a particular FDD cellular system is 33 MHz. It uses two 25 kHz simplex
channels to provide full duplex voice and control channels, compute the number of channels available per
cell if a system uses (a) 4 cell reuse and (b) 7 cell reuse.

Solution 4
Total bandwidth allocated to cellular system = 33 MHz
Channel bandwidth required for duplex channel (uplink and downlink) = 25 kHz × 2 = 50 kHz.
Total number of available channels = 33,000,000/50,000 = 660
(a) For cluster size N = 4, number of channels available per cell = 660/4 = 165
b) For cluster size N = 7, number of channels available per cell = 660/7 = 95

Figure 1.25(a) FDD Figure 1.25(b) TDD

1.14.3 Control and voice channels

There are two general types of channels in a cellular system: control channels and traffic (voice)
channels.

Control channels: The control channels are referred to as setup channels and paging channels.
Control channels are also sometimes called paging channels in the case of downlink, and access
channels in the case of uplink. The paging channels are used to set up calls that originate from
the BS, while the access channel is used to set up calls that originate from the mobile. Paging
channel is designated as Forward Control Channel (FOCC) and the access channel as the
Reverse Control Channel (RECC) (Fig. 1.22(a)). The FOCC and RECC establish the MS on the
network (registration), to set up calls from the MS and to set up calls coming in for a particular
MS (called a mobile page). After a call is established using the RECC and FOCC, the process
switches to the voice channels.
Traffic channels: Traffic channels are active during voice conversations, but they also do contain
the digital information needed to keep a call up. A MS thus tunes to and receives either a control
channel or a traffic channel at any given moment.

1.14.4 Operation of one mobile phone placing a call to another mobile phone
The operation of one mobile phone placing a call to another involves two steps. One is the
initialization of the mobile system and the second is the establishment of the call.

Initialization of mobile system: Five basic steps are involved in the mobile initialization
procedure. They are power on, scanning, tuning, registering, and listening. When a mobile phone
is turned on, it scans and selects the strongest and best bit-error rate (BER) (control channel)
signal sent by adjacent BSs. Then a handshaking process takes place between the mobile phone
and the MSC to identify the user and register its location. This procedure is repeated periodically
as long as the mobile unit is on to monitor the location of the mobile.

Establishment of a call: If a user dials a number and presses START or TALK button, the mobile
phone initializes a call by sending a call initiation request to its nearest BS. This request is sent
on a special channel (RECC). The BS sends the request, which contains the telephone number of
the called party, to the MSC. The MSC validates the request and uses the number to make a
connection to the called party via the PSTN. Then PSTN first connects itself to the MSC of the
called party, and then the MSC instructs the BS and MS that placed the call to switch to voice
channels. The MS that placed the call is then connected to the called station, using unused
forward and backward voice channels.

1.14.5 Operation that takes place when a mobile station receives an incoming call
The following operation takes place when a MS receives an incoming call is described in this
section. MSs continually scan the FOCC for paging signals from BSs. Paging signal informs the
mobile phone that it has a call coming in and should prepare the set up to receive it. When a
MSC receives a request for a connection to a MS in its area, it sends a broadcast message to all
BSs under its control. The message contains the number of the MS that is being called. The BSs
then broadcasts the message on all FOCCs. The correct MS acknowledges the page, by
identifying itself over the RECC. The MSC receives the acknowledgment via the BS and
instructs the BS and MS to switch to an unused voice channel. A data message is then
transmitted over the FVC which instructs the mobile phone to ring.

1.15 Multiple access schemes

The radio spectrum is a scarce resource. Without access to radio spectrum, there can be no
mobile communication. Multiple access refers to techniques that enable multiple users to share a
finite portion of given frequency spectrum efficiently. The sharing of frequency spectrum is
required to achieve high capacity by simultaneously allocating the bandwidth. The multiple users
will be assigned channels within that portion according to various techniques, known as multiple
access schemes. A channel can be thought of as merely a portion of the limited radio resource
(frequency slot or time slot or code), which is temporarily allocated for a specific purpose, such
as someone’s phone call. Multiple access control is shown in Figure 1.26.

The five most common schemes are given below:

• Frequency division multiple access (FDMA), where the total spectrum assignment is divided
into a number of discrete frequencies.
• Time division multiple access (TDMA), where the total spectrum is divided in time between a
number of users.
• Code division multiple access (CDMA), where neither the frequencies nor the time are divided
but users are distinguished through the use of a special code.
• Orthogonal frequency division multiple access (OFDMA), where the spread spectrum
technique spreads the data over a number of carriers that are spaced apart at precise frequencies.
• Space division multiple access (SDMA), where different users will be served on same frequency
channel at the same time.

Figure 1.26 Multiple access control

1.16 Digital cellular mobile radio systems

While analogue cellular phone system (1G) was designed for analogue voice communication, the
digital cellular mobile radio system (2G) was mainly designed for digitized voice. There are a
number of different digital cellular technologies including the following:
• Global system for mobile communications (GSM)
• General-packet radio service (GPRS)
• Code-division multiple access (CDMA)
• Evolution-data optimized (EV-DO)
• Enhanced data rates for GSM evolution (EDGE)
• Digital enhanced cordless telecommunications (DECT)
• Digital AMPS (IS-136/TDMA)
• Integrated digital enhanced network (IDEN)

Two main groups have evolved in the digital cellular mobile radio system development. One
group is from Europe and another is from America. The digital cellular mobile radio systems
developed by the two groups are:
• Global system for mobile communications (GSM) in Europe
• Code-division multiple access (CDMA)/Interim Standard (IS-95) in the United States

The above cellular systems (GSM and CDMA) are not compatible with each other.
1.16.1. Global system for mobile (GSM)
It was developed in Europe in the year 1990. It provides a common 2G technology all over
Europe. GSM uses TDMA and FDMA techniques as access mechanism. In GSM, the bandwidth
is divided into time slots for better utilization of bandwidth. GSM operates in the 900 MHz band
(890–915 MHz for forward link and 935–960 MHz for reverse link channels) in Europe and Asia
and in the 1,900 MHz band in the United States. GSM uses two bands for duplex
communication. Each band is 25 MHz in width, shifted towards 900 MHz. Each band is divided
into 125 channels of 200 kHz separated by guard bands and each channel is subdivided into eight
time slots or sub channels. One timeslot must be allocated for control channel purposes;
therefore, up to seven subscribers can use a channel simultaneously. GSM mobile phone consists
of two main components: handset and subscriber identity module (SIM).
SIM: The handset in a GSM system is different from analogue phones in that the identification
information of the subscriber is programmed into a SIM module and not in the handset. The
main functions of the handsets are receive/transmit and encoding and decoding of the voice
transmission. The SIM is a microcontroller embedded into a small piece of plastic. The SIM card
provides authentication, information storage, subscriber account information, and data
encryption. SIM chips and handsets are swappable.
GSM: This is a digital-wireless standard which uses TDMA technology as its air interface.
GSM has been deployed in the 900, 1,800, and 1,900 MHz bands. Each 25 MHz band provides a
total of 125 forward channels and 125 reverse channels. Each channel has a bandwidth of 200
kHz (25 MHz bandwidth/125 channels). Where each channel is subdivided into eight time slots,
or sub channels and the sub channel spacing is 25 kHz (200 kHz channel space divided by eight
time slots). Each channel is shared by eight users giving a total of 125 × 8 = 1,000 users per cell.

Problem 4.
The 2G cellular system GSM 900 operates its 125 forward channels in the uplink frequency band 890.2–
915 MHz and 125 reverse channels in the frequency band 935.2–960 MHz. Each channel has a bandwidth
of 200 kHz.
(a) What is the bandwidth in the forward channels (uplink frequency band) and reverse channels
(downlink frequency band)?
(b) If each channel is subdivided into 16 time slots, what is the sub channel spacing?
(c) If each channel is shared by 16 users then compute the total number of users per cell?

Solution 4.
a) Number of forward channels = Number of reverse channels = 125
Total number of channels = 125 + 125 = 250
Bandwidth of each channel allocated = 200 kHz
Bandwidth of uplink = bandwidth of downlink =
Number of channels × bandwidth of each channel = 125 × 200 kHz = 25 MHz
b) Number of time slots in each channel = 16
Sub channel spacing = channel space/time slots in each channel
= 200 kHz/16 = 12.5 kHz
c) Number of users shared in each channel =16
Total number of users per cell = 125 channels × 16 = 2000 users

1.16.2. CDMA or (IS-95)

The use of CDMA technology started in the United States in the year 1990. IS-95 is a standard
for CDMAone digital cellular whereas CDMA2000 is a 3G specification (the North American
version of wideband CDMA), and is backward compatible with IS-95 systems. In India, Reliance
Communications (RCOM), BSNL, and Vodafone (formerly Hutch) serve more than 39.4 million
subscribers using CDMA technology. CDMA is a unique access technology that separates
subscriber calls from one another by a pseudorandom noise (PRN) code instead of time or
frequency. As a result, all available CDMA frequencies can be used in every cell, thereby
increasing the total number of available voice channels and the overall system capacity. CDMA
is a wideband, spread-spectrum technology in which we allocate a unique code for every user
separately and allocate bandwidth to the user. Today, each CDMA carrier can support around 22
voice calls. 3G CDMA2000 systems may deploy more carriers per BS, possibly six to eight
carriers to accommodate the additional bandwidth requirements.

CDMA networks have pilot channels, which carry no data but are used by the mobile phone to
acquire the system and assist in the process of SHOs and synchronization. Table 1.2 summarizes
the differences among the basic analogue (AMPS) and digital (GSM and CDMA) cellular
systems that have been used. It gives an overview of the different mobile phone systems or
cellular technologies that are in use today and those that have been used over the years. Although
not every cellular technology is included, those that have been more widely used are included.

Table 1.2 Comparison of AMPS, GSM, and CDMA standards

Name AMPS GSM IS-95 CDMA

Generation 1 2 2

Year introduced and 1983 US 1992/1994 Germany 1993 US

origin place

Frequency band (MHz) Uplink 824–849 890–915/1850–1910 824–849/1850–1910

(BS receiving) Down link (BS 869–894 935–960/1930–1990 869–894/1930–1990

transmission)

Multiple access scheme FDMA TDMA,FDMA CDMA

Bandwidth/channel 30 kHz 200 kHz 1.25 MHz

Modulation type FM GMSK QPSK & OQPSK

Number of channels/carrier 1 8 85

Total channels 832 1000 1700

1.16.2.1 Channel Spacing in CDMA systems

Channel spacing refers to the actual bandwidth space that is allocated for every wireless channel
out of the total amount of spectrum allocated to a wireless carrier. In AMPS, the channel spacing
is 30 kHz. Each uplink and downlink channel occupies 30 kHz of bandwidth. Every AMPS
cellular call actually occupies a total of 60 kHz. GSM systems allot their radio spectrum in 200
kHz carriers, where each carrier allocates 25 kHz to uplink or downlink. CDMA, by definition, is
unique when it comes to channel spacing. In the most technical, literal sense, channel spacing in
a CDMA system is 1.25 MHz because all calls that are carried on a 1.25 MHz CDMA carrier are
spread out over the entire swath of that carrier. That is why CDMA is known as a spread
spectrum technology.
[A] Objective type questions and answers
1. The following concept refers to the use of radio channels on the same carrier frequency to
cover different areas that are separated from one another by sufficient distances:
(a) frequency reuse (b) handoff (c) cell splitting (d) cell geometry

2. The process of transferring an active call from one cell to another as the mobile unit moves
from the first cell to the other cell without disconnecting the call:
(a) frequency reuse (b) handoff (c) cell splitting (d) cell geometry

3. The interference received from co-channel cells is called:

(a) co-channel interference (b) frequency reuse (c) handoff (d) cell splitting

4. The actual radio coverage of a cell is known as _____________ and is determined from the
field measurements:
(a) footprint (b) cluster (c) capacity (d) channel

5. The following method is used as the access technology for global system for mobile (GSM)
Communications:
(a) FDMA (b) TDMA (c) CDMA (d) SDMA

6. The mobile technology using general packet radio service (GPRS) standard has been termed
as: (a) 1G (b) 2G (c) 3G (d) 2.5G

7. The cellular radio system that was mainly designed for digitized voice:
(a) 1G (b) 2G (c) 3G (d) 2.5G

8. The mobile phone system that was analogue and it only carried voice traffic:
(a) 1G (b) 2G (c) 3G (d) 2.5G

9. The capacity of a cellular system is directly proportional to:

(a) number of times a cluster is replicated in a fixed service area (b) number of cells in the cluster
(c) Number of channels in the cell (d) none of the above

10. The systems were “cellular” because coverage areas were split into _____________ each of
which is served by a low power transmitter and receiver:
(a) cells (b) cluster (c) capacity (d) channels

11. Larger cells are more useful in _____________:

(a) Densely populated urban areas (b) rural areas (c) lightly populated urban areas (d)
mountainous areas

12. The following cellular technology will bring almost perfect real world wireless or called
“WWWW: World Wide Wireless Web”:
(a) 1G (b) 2G (c) 3G (d) 4G

13. The two 3G systems developed are:

(a) GSM, CDMA (b) AMPS, CDMA (c) UMTS, IMT-2000 (d) CDMAone, UMTS

Answers: 1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (a) 11. (b)
12. (d) 13. (c)
[B] Review questions
1. Why does the mobile phone cell – the basic geographic unit of cellular system – have a
hexagonal shape?
2. Describe the principle of operation of cellular mobile system and explain the “cellular”
concept with a neat diagram.
3. What is meant by 1G, 2G, 2.5G, 3G, and 4G cellular systems?
4. Name the wireless access techniques used in 1G, 2G, and 3G wireless systems.
5. Describe the analogue and digital cellular land mobile systems and the limitations of AMPS
standard.
6. Compare the basic technological differences between the GSM and CDMA standards.
7. What is the fundamental difference between wireless cellular networks (1G, 2G, or 3G) and
wireless data networks?
8. List the main features of 3G systems.
9. Explain neatly how the 4G technology is projected to provide users with seamless wireless
access to voice, data, and video services irrespective of which wireless network they belong to.
10. Describe the functions of base station in a cellular network.
11. Mention the various components of a cellular network and describe them briefly.
12. What are the various multiple access and duplexing schemes used in cellular networks?
13. What are the various types of mobile radio transmission systems in use?
14. The 2G system GSM 900 has 125 channels in the uplink and 125 reverse channels in the
downlink. Each channel has a bandwidth of 200 kHz.
a) What is the total bandwidth occupied in both the uplink and downlink communications.
(Ans: 50 MHz)
b) If each channel is subdivided into 16 time slots, what is the sub-channel spacing?
(Ans: 16.66 kHz)
c) If each channel is shared by 16 users then compute the total number of users per cell?
(Ans: 1,500)
15. Explain the difference between 3G and 4G networks. (Refer Section 1.3.6)
16. A total of 33 MHz of BW is allocated to a particular FDD which uses two 25 kHz simplex
channels to provide full duplex voice and control channels. Compute the number of channels
available per cell, if a system uses (a) 4-cell reuse, (b) 7-cell reuse, and (c) 12-cell reuse. If 1
MHz of the allocated spectrum is dedicated to control channels, determine an equitable
distribution of control and voice channels in each cell for each of the three systems. [Ans: (a) 165
(b) 95 (c) 55]
17. Describe the operation of a mobile phone placing a call to another mobile user. (Refer Section
1.14.4)
18. Describe the operation that takes place mobile station receives an incoming call. (Refer Section
1.14.5)
19. What are the possible frequency reuse patterns?
20. What are spectrum efficiency and propagation path loss of a signal in a cellular
communication system? Give appropriate equations for both.
21. Mention the various techniques used to expand the capacity of a cellular system.
22. Describe role of a use of a repeater in range extension of a cellular system.
23. Draw the frequency reuse pattern for a cluster size of N = 7.
24. Calculate the change in received signal powers (in decibels) in mobile radio propagation
condition at two different distance points. When the second distance point is ten times the
distance of the firrst point. (Ans: −40 dB)
25. Present the concepts of frequency reuse channels and frequency reuse distance. (Refer
Section 1.7, 1.7.2)
[C] Open book questions
1.
(a)What are the limitations in early mobile telephone system? (Refer Section 1.2)
(b). Describe the digital cellular mobile radio systems that exist and the two groups that currently
dominate the cellular market.
2.
(a) Distinguish between 1G and 2G cellular networks in terms of frequency band and service.
(b) What are the limitations of 1G.
3. Define a cell and cluster. (Refer Sections 1.2 and 1.7)
4. Describe the channels used in mobile communication systems. (Refer Section 1.14.3)
5. What are the basic units of a cellular system and briefly what is the function of each unit?
(Refer Section 1.13.1)
6. What is cell splitting? Explain why it is performed. (Refer Section 1.8)
7. Explain the cellular concept neatly in terms of frequency reuse. (Refer Section 1.7)
8. What is propagation path loss? Express it mathematically in dB by considering
omnidirectional antenna. (Refer Section 1.7.1)
9. Write the features of GSM. (Refer Section 1.16.1)
10. Write the features of CDMA. (Refer Section 1.16.2)
11. What are the limitations of 1G system? (Refer Section 1.3.2)
12. Briefly explain handoff. (Refer Section 1.12)
13. What are co-channel cells and what is co-channel interference and describe its importance
with respect to SNR. (Refer Section 1.7.3)
14. State the different techniques used for improving coverage and capacity in cellular systems.
(Refer Section 1.6)
15. State the expression (a) that relates co-channel reuse ratio (Q) to radius (R) of a cell (Refer
Section 1.7.2)
16. What is the purpose of cell sectoring? (Refer Section 1.9)
17. Why hexagonal cell shape is used in cellular communication? (Refer Section 1.4.1)
18. What is a frequency reuse distance? (Refer Section 1.7.2)
19. List some methods to reduce co-channel interference in cellular communication network.
(Refer Section 1.7.3)
20. What is the significance of cell size?
21. Distinguish between a cell and a cell site. What complications arise due to usage of smaller
cells?
22. What could be the possible sources of interference which may limit the performance of
cellular communication systems? (Refer Section 1.7.2, 1.7.3)