Index

S.No Experiment Date Remark

1
Study of different types of Network cables and
practically implement the cross-
Wired cable and straight through cable using crimping
tool.
2
Case Study of different Topologies used in Computer
Networks.

3
To study various types of connectors.

4 Case study of OSI and TCP/IP reference models.(Define

Each layer)
5
Study various software of Data Link Layer..

6
Write a program to find Shortest Paths from Source
to all Vertices using Dijkstra’s Algorithm

7
To study TCL Commands
8
Study of network IP

Classification of IP address

Sub netting

Super netting
9 To implement various types of error detection and error
correcting techniques.
10 Case Study of Sliding Window Protocols
 Q 1. Study of different types of Network cables and practically implement the cross-
Wired cable and straight through cable using crimping tool.

Soln.- Study of Different Types of Network Cables.

Network cables are essential components of any network setup, connecting various devices to enable
communication. The two main types of network cables are:

1. Twisted Pair Cables

2. Fiber Optic Cables

1. Twisted Pair Cables

Twisted pair cables are the most common type used in Ethernet networks. They come in two primary
categories:

- Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): Widely used in LAN environments. They are cheaper and more flexible but
offer less protection against electromagnetic interference (EMI).
- Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Includes a shielding to protect against EMI, making them more suitable for
environments with high interference.

Types of UTP cables:

- Category 5e (Cat 5e): Supports up to 1 Gbps at 100 MHz, commonly used for most LAN connections.
- Category 6 (Cat 6): Supports up to 10 Gbps at 250 MHz, suitable for faster networks.
- Category 6a (Cat 6a): Enhanced Cat 6, supports up to 10 Gbps at 500 MHz, better for long-distance high-
speed applications.
- Category 7 (Cat 7): Supports up to 10 Gbps at 600 MHz, with even better shielding.

2. Fiber Optic Cables

Fiber optic cables transmit data as light signals, allowing for higher bandwidth and longer distances compared
to twisted pair cables.

- Single-mode Fiber (SMF): Suitable for long-distance communication, with a small core that transmits a
single light wave.
- Multi-mode Fiber (MMF): Suitable for shorter distances, with a larger core that transmits multiple light
waves simultaneously.

Cross-Wired (Crossover) Cable vs. Straight-Through Cable

Straight-Through Cable:
- Used to connect different types of devices, like a computer to a switch or router.
- Both ends follow the same wiring standard (either T568A or T568B).

Crossover Cable:
- Used to connect similar devices directly, such as two computers or two switches.
- One end follows the T568A standard, and the other end follows the T568B standard.

Wiring Standards:
- T568A:
- Pin 1: White/Green
- Pin 2: Green
- Pin 3: White/Orange
- Pin 4: Blue
- Pin 5: White/Blue
- Pin 6: Orange
- Pin 7: White/Brown
- Pin 8: Brown

- T568B:
- Pin 1: White/Orange
- Pin 2: Orange
- Pin 3: White/Green
- Pin 4: Blue
- Pin 5: White/Blue
- Pin 6: Green
- Pin 7: White/Brown
- Pin 8: Brown

Practically Implementing the Cross-Wired Cable and Straight-Through Cable

Materials Needed:
- Cat 5e or Cat 6 UTP cable
- RJ45 connectors
- Crimping tool
- Wire stripper/cutter
- Cable tester (optional, for verification)

Steps to Make a Straight-Through Cable:

1. Strip the Cable:

- Remove about 1-2 inches of the outer jacket using the wire stripper.

2. Untwist and Arrange Wires:

- Untwist the pairs and arrange them according to the T568B or T568A wiring standard.
- Flatten the wires and trim them evenly to about 0.5 inches in length.

3. Insert Wires into RJ45 Connector:

- Insert the wires into the connector, ensuring each wire goes into the correct slot.

4. Crimp the Connector:

- Place the connector into the crimping tool and squeeze firmly to secure the wires.

5. Repeat for Other End:

- Follow the same steps to terminate the other end of the cable, ensuring both ends follow the same wiring
standard (T568B or T568A).

6. Test the Cable:

- Use a cable tester to ensure proper connectivity.
Q 2. Case Study of different Topologies used in Computer Networks.

Soln.- Case Study of Different Topologies Used in Computer Networks.

Network topologies define the layout, arrangement, and structure of network connections. Different topologies
have unique characteristics, advantages, and drawbacks, making them suitable for various scenarios. This case
study examines five common network topologies: Bus, Star, Ring, Mesh, and Hybrid.

1. Bus Topology

Description:
- A single central cable (the bus) to which all network devices are connected.

Advantages:
- Easy to implement and extend.
- Requires less cable compared to other topologies.
- Cost-effective for small networks.

Disadvantages:
- Limited cable length and number of nodes.
- Difficult to troubleshoot.
- A failure in the central cable can bring down the entire network.

Use Case:
- Early LANs in Small Offices: Small offices with minimal networking needs often used bus topology due to
its simplicity and cost-effectiveness. For example, early versions of Ethernet networks, such as 10BASE-2,
utilized bus topology.

2. Star Topology

Description:
- All network devices are connected to a central hub or switch.

Advantages:
- Easy to install and manage.
- Failure of one node does not affect the rest of the network.
- Easy to troubleshoot and isolate issues.

Disadvantages:
- Higher cabling cost due to individual cables running to the central hub.
- The hub represents a single point of failure.

Use Case:
- Modern LANs: Star topology is prevalent in modern Local Area Networks (LANs) where each computer is
connected to a central switch or router. Schools, offices, and home networks commonly use this topology.

3. Ring Topology

Description:
- Each device is connected to two other devices, forming a circular data path.
Advantages:
- Equal access to resources because data travels in one direction.
- Can perform better than bus topology under heavy network load.

Disadvantages:
- Failure of a single device can affect the entire network.
- Difficult to install and reconfigure.

Use Case:
- Token Ring Networks: IBM's Token Ring network used ring topology, ensuring each computer had equal
access to the network. It was used in corporate environments requiring reliable and orderly network access.

4. Mesh Topology

Description:
- Every device is connected to every other device in the network.

Advantages:
- High redundancy and reliability.
- Data can be transmitted simultaneously from different devices.

Disadvantages:
- Very high cabling and hardware costs.
- Complex to install and manage.

Use Case:
- WANs and Military Networks: Mesh topology is often used in Wide Area Networks (WANs) and military
networks where reliability and redundancy are crucial. For instance, the Internet itself employs a mesh-like
structure to ensure robust communication.

5. Hybrid Topology

Description:
- Combination of two or more different topologies (e.g., star-bus, star-ring).

Advantages:
- Flexible and scalable.
- Can be designed to fit the specific needs of an organization.

Disadvantages:
- Complexity in design and implementation.
- Higher cost due to varied hardware and cabling requirements.

Use Case:
- Enterprise Networks: Large enterprises often use hybrid topologies to combine the strengths of different
configurations. For example, a company's network might use a star-bus topology where different star-
configured subnetworks are connected in a bus configuration.

Comparative Analysis
Q 3. To study various types of connectors.

Soln.- Study of Various Types of Connectors.

Connectors are crucial components in networking and electronic systems, enabling the physical interface
between different devices. This study explores various types of connectors, their uses, and their specific
characteristics.

1. RJ45 Connectors

Description:
- Commonly used for Ethernet networking.
- 8-pin connector used with twisted-pair cables (Cat5e, Cat6, etc.).

Uses:
- Connecting computers to network switches, routers, and modems.
- Used in both home and office environments for network connectivity.

Characteristics:
- Supports high-speed data transfer.
- Widely standardized and easy to use.

2. RJ11 Connectors

Description:
- Smaller than RJ45, with 4 or 6 pins.
- Commonly used for telephone connections.

Uses:
- Connecting telephones to wall outlets.
- Used in both residential and commercial telephone systems.

Characteristics:
- Limited to lower data transmission speeds compared to RJ45.
- Simple and cost-effective for voice communication.

3. USB Connectors

Description:
- Universal Serial Bus (USB) connectors come in various types (USB-A, USB-B, USB-C, Mini-USB, Micro-
USB).
- Used for connecting a wide range of devices.

Uses:
- Connecting peripherals such as keyboards, mice, printers, and external storage to computers.
- Charging and data transfer for mobile devices.

Characteristics:
- Hot-swappable, allowing devices to be connected and disconnected without restarting.
- Supports power delivery and data transfer simultaneously.
4. HDMI Connectors

Description:
- High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) connectors for audio and video transmission.
- 19-pin connector used for high-definition video and audio.

Uses:
- Connecting TVs, monitors, and projectors to devices like computers, DVD players, and gaming consoles.
- Widely used in home entertainment systems.

Characteristics:
- Supports high-definition video and multi-channel audio.
- Can carry uncompressed video and audio signals.

5. D-Sub Connectors

Description:
- D-shaped metal shield with various pin configurations (e.g., DB9, DB25).
- Used for both analog and digital signals.

Uses:
- Connecting computers to peripherals like printers, monitors (VGA), and serial devices.
- Found in older computer systems and specialized industrial applications.

Characteristics:
- Robust and durable.
- Supports various signal types and configurations.

6. Fiber Optic Connectors

Description:
- Used for high-speed data transmission through optical fibers.
- Types include SC, ST, LC, and MTP/MPO connectors.

Uses:
- Connecting fiber optic cables in networking, telecommunications, and data centers.
- Used in environments requiring high bandwidth and long-distance communication.

Characteristics:
- Supports very high data transfer rates.
- Immune to electromagnetic interference.

7. Coaxial Connectors

Description:
- Connectors for coaxial cables, such as BNC, F-type, and RCA.
- Used for both analog and digital signals.
Q 4. Case study of OSI and TCP/IP reference models.(Define Each layer).

Soln.- OSI Reference Model.

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework used to understand and implement
interoperable network protocols. It has seven layers, each specifying particular network functions.

1. Physical Layer (Layer 1)

- Function: Deals with the physical connection between devices and the transmission and reception of raw
bit streams over a physical medium.
- Examples: Cables, switches, and network interface cards (NICs).

2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

- Function: Responsible for node-to-node data transfer and error detection and correction. It ensures that data
is transferred correctly between two physically connected devices.
- Examples: MAC addresses, Ethernet, switches.

3. Network Layer (Layer 3)

- Function: Manages the delivery of packets from the source to the destination across multiple networks. It
handles logical addressing and routing.
- Examples: IP addresses, routers.

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4)

- Function: Ensures complete data transfer with error recovery and flow control. It provides reliable (TCP)
and unreliable (UDP) transport.
- Examples: TCP, UDP.

5. Session Layer (Layer 5)

- Function: Manages sessions between applications. It establishes, maintains, and terminates connections.
- Examples: NetBIOS, PPTP.

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6)

- Function: Translates data between the application layer and the network format. It deals with data
encryption, compression, and translation.
- Examples: SSL/TLS, JPEG, MPEG.

7. Application Layer (Layer 7)

- Function: Provides network services directly to end-user applications. It facilitates user interactions and
provides interfaces for software applications.
- Examples: HTTP, FTP, SMTP.

TCP/IP Reference Model

The TCP/IP model, also known as the Internet Protocol Suite, is a set of protocols used for the internet and
similar networks. It has four layers, each corresponding to specific functions in networking.

1. Network Interface Layer (Link Layer)

- Function: Corresponds to the OSI physical and data link layers. It deals with the hardware and protocols
needed for data exchange on the local network.
- **Examples**: Ethernet, Wi-Fi, ARP (Address Resolution Protocol).
2. Internet Layer
- Function: Matches the OSI network layer. It handles packet forwarding, including routing through
intermediate routers.
- Examples: IP (Internet Protocol), ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol).

3. Transport Layer
- Function: Similar to the OSI transport layer. It provides end-to-end communication services for
applications.
- Examples: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), UDP (User Datagram Protocol).

4. Application Layer
- Function: Encompasses the functionalities of the OSI session, presentation, and application layers. It
provides network services to end-user applications.
- Examples: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS.

Comparison and Case Study

Case Study: Web Browsing

1. Application Layer
- OSI: The user's browser uses HTTP (Application Layer) to request a webpage.
- TCP/IP: The HTTP request is generated in the Application Layer.

2. Presentation Layer
- OSI: The data is formatted (e.g., HTML) and may be encrypted using SSL/TLS.
- TCP/IP: Handled within the Application Layer; SSL/TLS are also implemented here.

3. Session Layer
- OSI: The session between the user's browser and the web server is established.
- TCP/IP: Handled within the Application Layer; protocols manage sessions implicitly.

4. Transport Layer
- OSI: TCP ensures reliable data transmission, or UDP for faster, less reliable communication.
- TCP/IP: TCP segments the HTTP data and ensures delivery through acknowledgment.

5. Network Layer
- OSI: IP addresses are used to route the packets from the client to the web server.
- TCP/IP: The IP protocol routes the data packets.

6. Data Link Layer

- OSI: Ethernet or Wi-Fi frames are used to transmit data to the next network device.
- TCP/IP: Network Interface Layer deals with MAC addressing and local network communication.

7. Physical Layer
- OSI: The actual physical medium (cables, radio waves) transmits the binary data.
- TCP/IP: Network Interface Layer ensures physical data transmission.
Q 5. Study various software of Data Link Layer.

Soln.- The Data Link Layer (Layer 2) in the OSI model is responsible for node-to-node data transfer, error
detection, and handling of data frames. Various software and protocols operate at this layer to ensure the
reliable transmission of data over a physical medium. Here are some key software and protocols associated
with the Data Link Layer:

1. Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)

- Function: A family of networking technologies for local area networks (LANs).
- Software Components: Network drivers and Ethernet controllers that manage data packet framing,
addressing, and error checking.
- Example Software: Realtek Ethernet Controller Driver, Intel PROSet/Wireless Software.

2. Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)

- Function: A set of wireless networking protocols used for local area networking of devices.
- Software Components: Wireless LAN drivers and management software that handle frame assembly, MAC
addressing, and data encapsulation.
- **Example Software: Broadcom Wireless Utility, Qualcomm Atheros Wireless Network Adapter.

3. ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)

- Function: Resolves IP addresses to MAC addresses, essential for LAN communications.
- Software Components: ARP modules within the operating system's networking stack.
- Example Software: ARP Cache Viewer, Windows ARP utility (`arp -a` command).

4. PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)

- Function: Provides a standard method for transporting multi-protocol datagrams over point-to-point links.
- Software Components: PPP daemon and client software that manage link establishment, authentication,
and data encapsulation.
- Example Software: pppd (PPP Daemon on Unix-like systems), Windows RAS (Remote Access Service).

5. HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control)

- Function: A bit-oriented code-transparent synchronous data link layer protocol.
- Software Components: HDLC controllers and drivers that handle frame synchronization, error detection,
and flow control.
- Example Software: Cisco HDLC implementation in routers, HDLC drivers in embedded systems.

6. Frame Relay
- Function: A high-performance WAN protocol that operates at the physical and data link layers.
- Software Components: Frame Relay controllers and software that manage virtual circuits, frame
formatting, and congestion control.
- Example Software: Frame Relay configuration utilities in network equipment (e.g., Cisco IOS for Frame
Relay).

7. ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)

- Function: A networking technology that supports data transfer in cells or fixed-size packets.
- Software Components: ATM adapters and software for cell relay, virtual circuit management, and traffic
shaping.
- Example Software: ATM interface configuration in network switches and routers.

8. Token Ring (IEEE 802.5)

 - Function: A LAN protocol where nodes are connected in a ring topology and a token circulates to control
access.
- Software Components: Token Ring network adapters and drivers that manage token passing, frame
formatting, and error checking.
- Example Software: IBM Token Ring software, Madge Token Ring drivers.

9. MAC (Media Access Control)

- Function: Part of the data link layer that determines who can use the network media at any given time.
- Software Components: MAC layer controllers and drivers that handle MAC addressing, frame
encapsulation, and collision detection/avoidance.
- Example Software: Broadcom MAC drivers, Intel Ethernet Connection software.

10. Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15.1)

- Function: A wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short distances.
- Software Components: Bluetooth stack and drivers that handle device pairing, data packet framing, and
error detection.
- Example Software: BlueZ (Linux Bluetooth stack), Microsoft Bluetooth stack.

Examples of Operating Systems and Tools:

- Operating Systems: Windows, macOS, Linux, and various Unix-based systems have built-in support and
drivers for these data link layer protocols.
- Network Management Tools: Wireshark (network protocol analyzer), SolarWinds Network Performance
Monitor, and SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) tools for monitoring and troubleshooting.

Conclusion:
Data link layer software is crucial for the functioning of network interfaces and the overall communication
process in a network. These software components ensure that data is correctly framed, addressed, and error-
checked before being transmitted over the physical layer.
Q 6. Write a program to find Shortest Paths from Source to all Vertices using Dijkstra’s Algorithm.

Soln.- Dijkstra's algorithm is a popular algorithm used for finding the shortest paths between nodes in a graph.
Below is a Python implementation of Dijkstra's algorithm using a priority queue for efficiency. This
implementation assumes that the graph is represented using an adjacency list.

Here's the Python code:

```python
import heapq

def dijkstra(graph, start):

# Number of vertices in the graph
n = len(graph)

# Distance array to store the shortest path from start to each vertex
distances = [float('inf')] * n
distances[start] = 0

# Priority queue to manage the vertices to explore

priority_queue = [(0, start)]

while priority_queue:
current_distance, current_vertex = heapq.heappop(priority_queue)

# If the distance is greater than the stored distance, skip this node
if current_distance > distances[current_vertex]:
continue

# Explore the neighbors of the current vertex

for neighbor, weight in graph[current_vertex]:
distance = current_distance + weight

# If found a shorter path to the neighbor, update the distance and push to the queue
if distance < distances[neighbor]:
distances[neighbor] = distance
heapq.heappush(priority_queue, (distance, neighbor))

return distances

# Example usage
if __name__ == "__main__":
# Graph represented as an adjacency list
# Each entry graph[u] contains a list of tuples (v, w) where
# v is the neighboring vertex and w is the weight of the edge u -> v
graph = [
[(1, 2), (2, 4)], # Edges from vertex 0
[(2, 1), (3, 7)], # Edges from vertex 1
[(4, 3)], # Edges from vertex 2
[(4, 1)], # Edges from vertex 3
 [] # Edges from vertex 4
]

start_vertex = 0
shortest_paths = dijkstra(graph, start_vertex)
print(f"Shortest paths from vertex {start_vertex}: {shortest_paths}")
```

Explanation
1. Graph Representation: The graph is represented as an adjacency list where each index in the list
corresponds to a vertex, and each element is a list of tuples. Each tuple contains a neighboring vertex and the
weight of the edge connecting to that neighbor.
2. Initialization: We initialize the distances from the start vertex to all other vertices as infinity (`float('inf')`)
and set the distance to the start vertex itself as 0.
3. Priority Queue: We use a priority queue (min-heap) to explore the vertices. The priority queue stores
tuples of (current_distance, current_vertex), which ensures that we always explore the vertex with the shortest
known distance first.
4. Relaxation: For each vertex, we check its neighbors. If the new calculated distance to a neighbor is shorter
than the known distance, we update the distance and add this neighbor to the priority queue.
5. Termination: The algorithm terminates when the priority queue is empty, and we return the distances
array, which contains the shortest path distances from the start vertex to all other vertices.

This code should provide a clear understanding of how Dijkstra's algorithm works and can be used as a basis
for more complex graph problems.
Q 7. To study TCL Commands.

Soln.- To study TCL (Tool Command Language) commands, you can follow these steps:

1. Understand the Basics:

- Familiarize yourself with the basic syntax and structure of TCL commands.
- Learn about variables, control structures (if, switch, loops), and procedures.
- Understand how commands are executed in TCL.

2. Learn TCL Commands:

- Explore common TCL commands for file operations, string manipulation, math operations, etc.
- Understand commands related to working with lists and arrays.
- Study commands for interacting with the TCL interpreter and executing system commands.

3. Practice with Examples:

- Practice writing TCL scripts to perform various tasks.
- Experiment with different TCL commands and see how they behave in different scenarios.
- Solve programming challenges or tasks using TCL.

4. Explore Documentation and Resources:

- Refer to official TCL documentation for detailed information on commands, syntax, and usage.
- Look for online tutorials, guides, and books on TCL programming.
- Join TCL forums or communities to ask questions and learn from others' experiences.

5. Work on Projects:
- Start working on small projects or scripts using TCL.
- Gradually increase the complexity of your projects to gain more experience.
- Analyze and understand existing TCL codebases to learn best practices and techniques.

6. Experiment and Debug:

- Experiment with different approaches and techniques to solve problems in TCL.
- Learn how to debug TCL scripts by using print statements, logging, or debugging tools.
- Understand common errors and pitfalls in TCL programming and how to avoid them.

7. Stay Updated:
- Keep yourself updated with the latest developments and updates in TCL.
- Follow TCL-related blogs, news, and forums to stay informed about new features, tools, and libraries.

8. Collaborate and Share:

- Collaborate with others who are also learning TCL or are experienced TCL programmers.
- Share your knowledge and experiences with the TCL community through blogs, tutorials, or forums.

By following these steps and dedicating time to practice and experiment with TCL commands, you can
gradually become proficient in TCL programming.
Q 8. Study of network IP

Classification of IP address

Sub netting

Super netting

Soln.- Certainly! Let's dive into the study of network IP addressing, including the classification of IP
addresses, subnetting, and supernetting.

1. Classification of IP Address:

IP addresses are classified into several classes based on the range of addresses they cover and the network size
they support. The most commonly used classification is based on the first octet of the IP address:

- Class A: Range: 1.0.0.0 to 126.255.255.255

- First octet ranges from 1 to 126.
- Supports a large number of hosts (up to 16 million).
- Reserved for large organizations or ISPs.

- Class B: Range: 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255

- First octet ranges from 128 to 191.
- Supports moderate-sized networks (up to 65,000 hosts).
- Used by medium-sized organizations or institutions.

- Class C: Range: 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255

- First octet ranges from 192 to 223.
- Supports small networks (up to 254 hosts).
- Commonly used in small businesses and homes.

- Class D: Range: 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255

- Reserved for multicast groups.
- Used for multicasting purposes.

- Class E: Range: 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255

- Reserved for future use or experimental purposes.

2. Subnetting:

Subnetting is the process of dividing a larger network into smaller, manageable sub-networks (subnets). It
helps in optimizing network performance, improving security, and efficient resource utilization. In subnetting,
a portion of the host bits from the IP address is used to create a network ID and subnet ID, while the remaining
bits are used for host addresses.

Key concepts of subnetting include:

- Subnet mask: Determines the network portion and host portion of an IP address.
- Subnet ID: Identifies the subnet within a larger network.
- Broadcast address: Address used to send data to all hosts within a subnet.
- Host range: Range of usable IP addresses within a subnet.
Q 9. To implement various types of error detection and error correcting techniques.

Soln.- Implementing various types of error detection and error correcting techniques involves a range of
algorithms and methodologies, each suited for different types of errors and communication channels. Below,
I'll provide an overview of some common error detection and error correction techniques along with a brief
explanation of each:

Error Detection Techniques:

1. Parity Check:
- Involves adding an additional parity bit to the data transmitted.
- Even parity: Ensures the total number of 1s in the data, including the parity bit, is even.
- Odd parity: Ensures the total number of 1s in the data, including the parity bit, is odd.

2. Checksum:
- Involves summing up all the data bytes and adding a checksum at the end.
- Receiver recalculates the checksum and compares it with the received checksum. If they don't match, an
error is detected.

3. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC):

- A polynomial-based method for error detection.
- A generator polynomial is divided into the data and a remainder (CRC) is appended to the data.
- Receiver divides the received data by the same polynomial, if the remainder is zero, no error is detected.

Error Correction Techniques:

1. Hamming Code:
- Adds redundant bits to the data to detect and correct errors.
- Hamming distance between code words determines the number of errors that can be corrected.
- Widely used for error correction in computer memory.

2. Reed-Solomon Code:
- A block code capable of correcting multiple errors in data transmission.
- Widely used in digital communications, CDs, DVDs, and QR codes.

3. Forward Error Correction (FEC):

- Adds redundant information to the data before transmission.
- Receiver uses this redundant information to correct errors without the need for retransmission.
- Commonly used in satellite communication and digital television.

4. Convolutional Coding:
- A technique that encodes data using shift registers and exclusive OR gates.
- Produces a continuous stream of coded symbols, allowing for continuous error correction at the receiver.

5. Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ):

- Detects and corrects errors through retransmission of data packets.
- Uses acknowledgments and timeouts to determine when retransmission is necessary.
Q 10. Case Study of Sliding Window Protocols.

Soln.- Let's explore a case study of sliding window protocols in the context of computer networking.

Introduction to Sliding Window Protocols:

Sliding window protocols are used in computer networks to manage the flow of data between sender and
receiver efficiently. They allow for the transmission of multiple packets without waiting for an
acknowledgment for each individual packet. Instead, a window of packets is sent, and acknowledgments are
received for packets within the window.

Case Study: Go-Back-N Protocol

Scenario: Consider a scenario where a sender (S) wants to transmit data to a receiver (R) over an unreliable
network. Both sender and receiver are using the Go-Back-N protocol for reliable data transmission.

Key Components:
1. Sender (S): The entity responsible for sending data packets to the receiver.
2. Receiver (R): The entity responsible for receiving data packets from the sender.
3. Sequence Numbers: Each packet sent by the sender is assigned a sequence number.
4. Window Size (N): The maximum number of unacknowledged packets allowed in the network.
5. Timer**: A timer is set for each packet sent by the sender to handle timeouts.
6. Acknowledgment (ACK): A signal sent by the receiver to acknowledge successful receipt of a packet.

Protocol Workflow:
1. Sender Side:
- Maintain a send window of size N.
- Send N packets to the receiver and start a timer for each packet.
- Wait for acknowledgments from the receiver.
- If an acknowledgment is received for a packet with sequence number k, advance the window to include
packets k+1 to k+N.
- If a timeout occurs for any packet, retransmit all packets in the window starting from the timed-out packet.

2. Receiver Side:
- Maintain a receive window of size N.
- Receive packets from the sender and send acknowledgments.
- Accept packets only if they fall within the receive window.
- Discard duplicate or out-of-order packets.
- Send cumulative acknowledgments indicating the highest correctly received sequence number.

Example:
- Suppose the sender's window size (N) is 3, and the sequence numbers of packets are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ...
- Sender sends packets 0, 1, 2, and waits for acknowledgments.
- Receiver receives packets 0 and 1, acknowledges both.
- Sender receives acknowledgments, advances the window, and sends packets 3, 4, 5.
- If acknowledgment for packet 2 is lost, sender timeouts and resends packets 2, 3, 4.
- Receiver discards duplicate packets and sends acknowledgment for the last correctly received packet.
Advantages:
- Efficient utilization of network bandwidth by allowing multiple packets to be in transit simultaneously.
- Simple implementation and low overhead compared to other protocols.

Challenges:
- Increased complexity in handling out-of-order packets and duplicate acknowledgments.
- Limited by the window size, which affects throughput and latency.

Conclusion:

Sliding window protocols, such as the Go-Back-N protocol, play a crucial role in ensuring reliable data
transmission over unreliable networks. By allowing multiple packets to be in transit simultaneously, they
improve network efficiency while maintaining data integrity and reliability. However, proper tuning of
parameters such as window size and timeout values is essential for optimal performance in real-world
scenarios.