Full Stop

Used to mark the end of a sentence

Also used in abbreviations
Using Full Stops
End of a sentence:
The sunset was beautiful.

I’m not a good cook, but I try my best.In abbreviations:

You can buy tea, coffee, etc. at the cafe.
Please return it by 29th Oct. at the latest.
 Comma
Used in four main ways:
1) Lists 2) Direct speech 3) To separate clauses
4) To mark off parts of a sentence
Using Commas
In lists: There’s a choice of duck, pork, beef or fish.In
direct speech: “Pass the salt,” he said.To separate clauses in
complex sentences:

We met in York, where I was living then.To

mark off parts of a sentence: My brother, David, will be joining us.
 Apostrophe
Used in two main ways:
1) to show possession 2) to show omission
(belonging to) (missing letters)
Using apostrophes
Showing possession: This pen is Priya’s.
Showing possession (plural ending in ‘s’): She attends a girls’ school.
Showing omission:
Don’t use those stairs.
It’s cold today.
 Speech Marks

Used in two main ways:

1) to indicate direct speech 2) to show quotation.
Can be single ‘ ’ or double “ ”
Using speech marks:
Direct speech: “You never listen to me,” she said.
“Why should I?” he replied.Quotation: The minister’s
plans were described as ‘too ambitious.’
 Exclamation mark
Used in two main ways:
1) Used to end a sentence expressing an exclamation
(emotion)
2) In direct speech
These are best avoided in non-fiction writing
Using exclamation marks:
An exclamation: Ryan turned – the monster was behind him! Direct
speech: “Look out!” he cried.
 Question mark

?
Used to end a sentence or statement which poses a
question
Question words: how, why, where, when, who, what
Using question marks:
How do I get to the library?Why do giraffes have long necks?
 Colon
Used in three main ways:
1) Used in between two related clauses, where the second
clause can’t stand alone.
2) to introduce a list
3) before quotation or direct speech
Between two clauses: I knew what I had to do: confess my
crime.Introducing a list: You will need the following ingredients: flour,
sugar,
eggs, milk Before a quote: Everyone remembers
Hamlet’s dilemma:
“to be or not to be.”
 Semicolon

Used in between two equal clauses, which are closely

related but could stand alone
Using semicolons

Call me tomorrow; I’ll know the answer then.The flight was long;
Australia is very far away.
 Subject
The person or thing a sentence is about.
Sarah plays football.
(subject) (object)
Subject Examples

Skiing is an exciting sport.

Mark came to our house for dinner.
Is your aunt feeling better?
 Object
The person or thing affected by the sentence’s verb.
We were listening to music.
(subject) (verb) (object)
Object Examples:
Direct object: (directly affected by verb action)

I bought her some flowers to say sorry.Indirect

object: (person or thing benefiting from action of main verb)
I bought her some flowers to say sorry.
 Phrase
A small group of words that act as a meaningful
unit within a clause but do not stand alone
Phrase examples:
Noun phrase:
A pile of books was on the desk. Verb phrase:
Tomorrow, we will be going to the park.Adjective phrase:
The wedding was really beautiful.
 Main Clause

A group of words that contains a verb and can stand alone

I was living in York, where I worked.
(main clause)
Main clause examples

I am eating a piece of cake.

It will be sunny today.
There was no answer.
 Subordinate Clause
A secondary clause, which depends on a main clause for
meaning
I was living in York, where I worked.
(subordinate clause)
Subordinate clause examples

I went to visit my sister, who has just had a baby.

Venice, where we went last year, is a beautiful city.
We celebrated at the pub, which was just down the road.
 Simple Sentence
A group of words which contains a verb and makes sense on its
own, with one main clause
I love cats.
(main clause)
Simple sentence examples
I went shopping.
She grew up in London.
I took him to the park.
 Compound Sentence
Two or more main clauses that are usually joined by a
conjunction.
I love cats, but I’m allergic to cat hair.
(clause 1) (conjunction) (clause 2)
Compound Sentence Examples:
I went shopping and I bought some shoes.
She grew up in London, but her family are Irish.
I took him to the park and he enjoyed playing on the swings.
 Complex Sentence

A main clause joined to one or more subordinate clauses.

I love cats, having owned several.
(main clause) (subordinate clause)
Complex Sentence Examples:
I went shopping, which is my favourite activity.
She grew up in London, after her family moved from Ireland.
I took him to the park, where he enjoyed playing on the swings.
 Nouns
Words that identify a person, idea or thing.
woman, tree, love, city, computer
‘Naming’ words
Types of noun
Common: refers to things in general friendship, dog, night, road,
educationProper: a specific person/place/thing Edinburgh, Asia, Clare,
TuesdayAbstract: intangible idea love, friendship, education,
timeCollective: groups of people or things audience, team, family, class
 Verbs
Words that express the actions of a person or thing
run, breathe, grow, have, be
‘Doing’ words
Using Verbs to Describe…
Actions: She is laughingEvents: It rained for
daysSituations: We had a lovely time.Change: Children grow
up quickly.
 Adjectives
Words that are used to modify nouns
small, quick, annoying, beautiful
‘Modifying’ words
Using Adjectives:
Placed before a noun:
I have brown hair.
It was an interesting book.Placed after a link verb:
This cake is delicious.
The snow feels cold.
 Adverbs
Gives information about a verb, adjective or another
adverb
clearly, soon, hopefully, there, really

Using Adverbs to Describe:

How something happens: We watched the match
hopefully.When something happens: The film will be starting
soon.Where something happens: We will set up the stage over
there.
 Pronouns
Used in place of a noun that is already known.
I, you, we, her, mine, them, ours
Types of Pronoun:
Subjective: subjects of verbs I, you, we, he, she, it, theyObjective:
objects of verbs/prepositions me, you, us, him, her, it, themPossessive:
refer to something owned mine, yours, hers, his, ours, theirsReflexive: refer
back to subject of clause
myself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves
 Connectives
Used to connect phrases, clauses and sentences.
and, because, if, but, or, until
‘Joining’ words
Using connectives
Coordinating conjunctions: join items of equal importance
You can have coffee or tea.Subordinating
conjunctions: connect a subordinate clause to a main clause.
I made a sandwich because I was hungry.
 Prepositions

Used to show relationships between nouns and the other

words in a sentence.
under, over, between, on, in, with
Using Prepositions:
Positioning: Your shoes are under the table.Timing: The party
is on Saturday.A way of doing things: We had to go without
them.
 Determiners
Used to introduce nouns or phrases.
a, the, those, this, every

Types of Determiner
Definite article: the The indefinite article: a/an Possessive
determiners: (show ownership)
my, your, his, her, our, their, its
 Present Simple
I go
Used to describe permanent or regular activities.
Subject + Verb

Using the Present Simple Tense

We live in Paris.
She practises every day.
I like chocolate.
 Present Continuous
I am going
Used to describe activities happening in the present moment.
Subject + IS + Verb (continuous - ing)

Using the Present Continuous Tense

I am training to be a teacher.
The rain is falling.
We’re driving home
 Present Perfect
I have gone
Used to indicate a connection between the past and the
present, where the action is complete.
Subject + HAS + Verb (past participle)

Using the Present Perfect Tense:

I’ve already read that book.
We have finished painting the house.
He has called the doctor to come as soon as he can.
 Present Perfect Continuous
I have been going
Used to indicate a connection between the past and the
present, where the action is unfinished.
Subject + HAS + BEEN
+ Verb (continuous - ing)

Using the Present Perfect Continuous Tense

She has been working here for three years.
I’ve been listening to everything you’re saying.
How long have you been waiting?
 Future Simple
I will go / I am going to go
Used to describe future events.
Subject + IS + GOING + TO + Verb
(future events already decided)
Subject + WILL + Verb
(future unplanned events)
Using the Future Simple Tense:
Future unplanned events:
Do you think we’ll win?
She will look wonderful in that dress.
It will be a nice day. Future events already decided:
I am going to take the bus.
Are you going to stay here tonight?
It looks like it is going to rain.
 Future Continuous
I will be going
Used to indicate being in the middle of something at a
specified point in the future.
Subject + WILL + BE
+ Verb (continuous - ing)
Using the Future Continuous Tense:
This time next week, I will be going to the beach.
They won’t be arriving until after ten.
Will you be coming to the party tonight?
 Future Perfect
I will have gone
Used to describe actions that will be finished by a
specified time in the future.
Subject + WILL + HAVE
+ Verb (past participle)
Using the Future Perfect Tense:
They will have parked the car at your house.
I’m sure she will have left by now.
Will you have finished the report by tomorrow morning?
 Future Perfect Continuous
I will have been going
Used to describe how long an action will have lasted by a
specified point in the future.
Subject + WILL + HAVE + BEEN
+ Verb (continuous -ing)
Using the Future Perfect Continuous Tense:
They will have been running this event for ten years in May.
This year, we will have been coming to the south of France for six
years.
If it gets to ten o’clock, I will have been waiting for two hours.
 Past Simple
I went
Used to describe actions which occurred in the past and
are now completed.
Subject + Verb (past form)

Using Past Simple Tense:

I saw that film yesterday.
She ran for miles.
We danced the night away.
 Past Continuous
I was going
Used to describe past actions which lasted for an
extended period of time.
Subject + WAS + Verb (continuous – ing)

Using the Past Continuous Tense:

I was trying to keep it a secret.
Were you hoping to catch the three o’clock train?
She wasn’t coping very well with the stress.
 Past Perfect
I had gone
Used to describe a past action which was started and
completed before another past action began.
Subject + HAD + Verb (past form)

Using the Past Perfect Tense:

I had already gone to bed by then.
He had taken the day off work to look after his daughter.
We’d started eating by the time she arrived.
 Past Perfect Continuous
had been going
Used to describe past actions which continued up until a
specified point in time.
Subject + HAD + BEEN
+ Verb (continuous - ing)
Using the Past Perfect Continuous Tense:
They had been waiting for a long time.
I had been studying French for two years.
She had been keeping the money safe for years.