MECHANICS OF METAL

CUTTING

(feed
force)

Radial
force

Tool feed Main

direction Cutting
force
 Topics to be covered
 Tool terminologies and geometry
 Orthogonal Vs Oblique cutting
 Turning Forces
 Velocity diagram
 Merchants Circle
 Power & Energies
 Need for calculating forces, velocities
and angles during machining??
• We need to determine the cutting forces in turning for
Estimation of cutting power consumption, which also
enables selection of the power source(s) during design of
the machine tools.
• Structural design of the machine – fixture – tool system.
• Evaluation of role of the various machining parameters
(tool material and geometry) on cutting forces to make
machining process more efficient and economical.
• Condition monitoring of the cutting tools and machine tools.
 Heat Generation Zones
30%(Dependent on µ)

(Dependent on φ) 60%

Chip
Tool

Workpiece

10%
(Dependent on shar pness
of tool)
Tool Terminology
Side Rake
(SR), +
Back
Rake
End Cutting (BR),+
edge angle
(ECEA)
Turning
Facing Cutting
Cutting edge
edge Nose
Radius Side relief
angle
Side cutting
edge angle
(SCEA)
Clearance or end
relief angle
Cutting Geometry
Material Removal Rate
MRR = vfd

Roughing(R)
f = 0.4 − 1.25mm / rev
d = 2.5 − 20mm

Finishing(F)
f = 0.125 − 0.4mm / rev
d = 0.75 − 2.0mm

v R << v F
Metal Cutting is the process of removing unwanted material from the workpiece
in the form of chips

Cutting Edge is normal to tool feed. Cutting Edge is inclined at an acute

angle to tool feed.
Here only two force components are Here only three force components are
considered i.e. cutting force and thrust considered i.e. cutting force, radial force
force. Hence known as two dimensional and thrust force. Hence known as three
cutting. dimensional cutting.
Shear force acts on smaller area. Shear force acts on larger area.
 Assumptions
(Orthogonal Cutting Model)

 The cutting edge is a straight line extending perpendicular

to the direction of motion, and it generates a plane surface
as the work moves past it.
 The tool is perfectly sharp (no contact along the clearance
face).
 The shearing surface is a plane extending upward from
the cutting edge.
 The chip does not flow to either side
 The depth of cut/chip thickness is constant uniform
relative velocity between work and tool
 Continuous chip, no built-up-edge (BUE)
TERMINOLOGY
α : Rack angle F: Frictional Force
β : Frictional angle N: Normal Frictional Force
ϕ : Shear angle V: Feed velocity
Ft : Thrust Force Vc: Chip velocity
Fc: Cutting Force Vs: Shear velocity
Fs: Shear Force
Fn: Normal Shear Force
 Forces For Orthogonal Model
Velocity of F C Tangential Force
Tool relative to 'Cutting' Force
DIRECTION OF ROTATION workpiece V

WORKPIECE
Fr Radial Force
‘Thrust’ Force

FL
Longitudinal Force

CUTTING TOOL

DIRECTION OF FEED

Note: For the 2D Orthogonal Mechanistic

Model we will ignore the Longitudinal
component End view
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 Orthogonal Cutting Model
(Simple 2D mechanistic model)
Chip thickness tc
Velocity V
Rake
Angle
+
Chip tool
Tool
α
depth of cut
t0

Shear Angle Clearance Angle

φ

Workpiece

Mechanism: Chips produced by the shearing process along the shear plane
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Orthogonal Cutting

to ls sin φ
r= =
tc ls cos(φ − α )

r cos α
tan φ =
1 − r sin α

AC AD + DC
γ = = = tan( φ − α ) + cot φ
BD BD

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 Cutting Ratio
(or chip thicknes ratio)
Chip
tool
(φ−α)

B
tc
to φ
A
Workpiece

to tc
As Sinφ = and Cos(φ-α) =
AB AB
t0 sinφ
Chip thickness ratio (r) = =
tc cos(φ−α)
 Experimental Determination of
Cutting Ratio

Lc Shear angle φ may be obtained

wc tc either from photo-micrographs
or assume volume continuity
t0 (no chip density change):
L0
w0

Si nc e t 0w 0L 0 = t cw cL c and w 0=w c (e xp. e vi de nc e )

Cutting ratio , r = t 0 = c
L
tc L0
i.e. Measure length of chips (easier than thickness)
 Shear Plane Length
and Angle φ
Chip

tool
(φ−α)
B
tc
to φ
A
Workpiece

t0
Shear plane length AB =
sinφ
-1 rc osα
She ar pl ane angl e (φ) = Tan
1-rsi nα
or make an assumption, such as φ adjusts to minimize
0
cutting force: φ = 45 + α/2 - β/2 (Merchant)
Shear Velocity
Vc = Chip Velocity
(Chip relative to tool)
Velocities
(Chip relative (2D Orthogonal
to workpiece) V
s V = Cutting Velocity Model)
Chip
(Tool relative to
Tool
workpiece)

Workpiece
Velocity Diagram
Vc
Vs
α
From mass c onti nui ty: Vt o = V ct c
si nφ φ−α
V c = Vr and V c = V
c os(φ−α)
90 − φ φ
From the Ve l oc i ty di agram:
V
c osα
Vs = V
c os(φ−α)
 Cutting Forces
(2D Orthogonal Cutting)
Chip Tool
Generally we know:
Tool geometry & type
R Workpiece material
F
φ Fs and we wish to know:
Fn R
N F = Cutting Force
F c = Thrust Force
R F t = Friction Force
Fc N = Normal Force
Workpiece Ft R F s = Shear Force
Fn = Force Normal

Dynamometer to Shear

Free Body Diagram

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 Cutting Forces
(2D Orthogonal Cutting)
 Fs , Resistance to shear of the metal in forming the chip. It
acts along the shear plane.
 Fn , ‘Backing up’ force on the chip provided by the
workpiece. Acts normal to the shear plane.

 N, It at the tool chip interface normal to the cutting face of

the tool and is provided by the tool.

 F, It is the frictional resistance of the tool acting on the chip.

It acts downward against the motion of the chip as it glides
upwards along the tool face.
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 Fs
Fn α
Fc φ V
λ-α
Ft φ
R α
λ F

Knowing Fc , Ft , α and ϕ, all other component forces can be calculated.

Please note λ is same as β in next

slide = friction angle
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Force Circle Diagram
(Merchants Circle)
α
Fs Tool

Fc φ

β−α

F F
n
t α

φ R

β−α
β
F
α
N

22
23
 Cutting Forces
• Forces considered in orthogonal cutting include
– Cutting, friction (tool face), and shear forces
• Cutting force,Fc acts in the direction of the cutting
speed V, and supplies the energy required for cutting
– Ratio of Fc to cross-sectional area being cut (i.e. product of
width and depth of cut, t0) is called: specific cutting force
• Thrust force,Ft acts in a direction normal to the cutting
force
• These two forces produces the resultant force, R
• On tool face, resultant force can be resolved into:
– Friction force, F along the tool-chip interface
– Normal force, N to ⊥ to friction force
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 Cutting Forces
• It can also be shown that (β is friction angle)

F = R sin β ⇒ N = R cos β

• Resultant force, R is balanced by an equal and

opposite force along the shear plane
• It is resolved into shear force, Fs and normal force, Fn
• Thus, Fs = Fc cos φ − Ft sin φ
Fn = Fc sin φ + Ft cos φ
• The magnitude of coefficient of friction, µ is
F Ft + Fc tan α
µ= =
N Fc − Ft tan α
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 Cutting Forces
• The toolholder, work-holding devices, and machine tool
must be stiff to support thrust force with minimal
deflections
– If Ft is too high ⇒ tool will be pushed away from workpiece
– this will reduce depth of cut and dimensional accuracy
• The effect of rake angle and friction angle on the direction
of thrust force is
Ft = R sin (β − α )
• Magnitude of the cutting force, Fc is always positive as the
force that supplies the work is required in cutting
• However, Ft can be +ve or –ve; i.e. Ft can be upward with
a) high rake angle, b) low tool-chip friction, or c) both

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Forces from Merchant's Circle

Friction Force F = Fcsinα + Ftcosα

Normal Force N = Fccosα - Ftsinα
µ = F/N and µ = tanβ (typically 0.5 - 2.0)
Shear Force Fs = Fccosφ - Ftsinφ
Forc e Normal to She ar pl ane F n = F csi nφ + F tc osφ
 Stresses
On the Shear plane:
Fn Fnsinφ
Normal Stress = σs = Normal Force / Area = =
AB w tow
Fs Fssinφ
Shear Stress = τs = Shear Force / Area = =
AB w tow

On the tool rake face:

N
σ = Normal Force / Area = (often assume tc = contact length)
tc w
F
τ = Shear Force / Area =
tc w
 Power
•Power (or energy consumed per unit time) is the product of
force and velocity. Power at the cutting spindle:
Cutting Power Pc = FcV
•Power is dissipated mainly in the shear zone and on the rake
face:
Power for Shearing Ps = FsV s
Friction Power Pf = FV c

•Actual Motor Power requirements will depend on machine

efficiency E (%): Pc
Motor Power Required = x 100
E
Material Removal Rate (MRR)
Volume Removed
Material Removal Rate (MRR) =
Time
Volume Removed = Lwto

Time to move a distance L = L/V

Lwto
Therefore, MRR = = Vwto
L/V

MRR = Cutting velocity x width of cut x depth of cut

 Specific Cutting Energy
(or Unit Power)
Energy required to remove a unit volume of material (often quoted as
a function of workpiece material, tool and process:

Energy Energy per unit time

Ut = =
Volume Removed Volume Removed per unit time

Cutting Power (Pc) FcV Fc

Ut = = =
Material Removal Rate (MRR) Vwto wto

FsV s
Specific Energy for shearing Us =
Vwto
FV c Fr F
Specific Energy for friction Uf = = = =τ
Vwto wto wtc
 Specific Cutting Energy
Decomposition
1. Shear Energy/unit volume (Us)
(required for deformation in shear zone)

2. Friction Energy/unit volume (Uf)

(expended as chip slides along rake face)

3. Chip curl energy/unit volume (Uc)

(expended in curling the chip)

4. Kinetic Energy/unit volume (Um)

(required to accelerate chip)

U t = U s + U f +U c +U m
 Cutting Forces and Power
measurement
Measuring Cutting Forces and Power
• Cutting forces can be measured using a force
transducer, a dynamometer or a load cell mounted
on the cutting-tool holder
• It is also possible to calculate the cutting force from the
power consumption during cutting (provided
mechanical efficiency of the tool can be determined)
• The specific energy (u) in cutting can be used to
calculate cutting forces

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 Cutting Forces and Power
Power
 Prediction of forces is
based largely on
experimental data (right)
 Wide ranges of values
is due to differences in
material strengths
 Sharpness of the tool tip
also influences forces
and power
 Duller tools require
higher forces and power
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