3.

1 Thermal Concepts
Understandings:
Molecular theory of solids, liquids and gases
Temperature and absolute temperature
Internal energy
Specific heat capacity
Phase change
Specific latent heat

Applications and skills:

Describing temperature change in terms of internal energy
Using Kelvin and Celsius temperature scales and converting between them
Applying the calorimetric techniques of specific heat capacity or specific latent heat experimentally
Describing phase change in terms of molecular behaviour
Sketching and interpreting phase change graphs
Calculating energy changes involving specific heat capacity and specific latent heat of fusion and
vaporization

Guidance:
Internal energy is taken to be the total intermolecular potential energy + the total random kinetic energy
of the molecules
Phase change graphs may have axes of temperature versus time or temperature versus energy
The effects of cooling should be understood qualitatively but cooling correction calculations are not
required
 Thermal Physics
3.1 Thermal Concepts

Temperature ​at the macroscopic level (bulk properties) is a measure of how hot or cold
an object is. If two objects are at the same temperature they are said to be in thermal
equilibrium, then no heat will flow between them. In molecular terms temperature is a
measure of the average kinetic energy of each molecule​​.

Temperature is measured using a scale either the Celsius or Kelvin scale.

The Kelvin temperature scale and the Celsius temperature scale are related by:

K = ​°​C + 273

Temperatures below 0 K are impossible and 0 K itself has yet to be reached! (there are
reasons why this is impossible).

Convert the following temperatures

25 ​°​C = ​298​ K 100 K = ​-173​°​C -273 ​°​C = ​0​ K

Thermal Energy (Heat) and Internal energy

Thermal Energy (heat) is energy that is transferred due to a temperature difference.

(From high to low temperature by conduction, convection or radiation). The symbol for
heat is Q

The ​internal energy​​ of a substance is the total random kinetic energy of the molecules
(translational/rotational movement) plus the total intermolecular potential energy
(energy used to overcome the forces between the molecules) of the substance. The
symbol for internal energy is U. Normally we only refer to ​changes​ in internal energy

Which has a greater internal energy: a swimming pool at 30 ​°​C or a cup of tea at 80​ ​°​C?
the swimming pool because it has far more molecules in total
1
In which do the molecules have a greater average kinetic energy; pool or tea?
The tea because temperature represents average kinetic energy

Which has a greater average kinetic energy for its molecules; steam at 100 ​°​C or water
at 100​°​C?
they are the same (same temp = same average KE)

Which has more internal energy; 1 kg of steam at 100​ ​°​C or 1 kg of water at 100​ ​°​C?
the steam because it has greater PE

Why does steam at 100​°​C cause more severe burns than water at 100​°​C?
Steam releases the potential energy on condensation as well as kinetic energy due to
its temperature.

1​
​Somewhere, something incredible is waiting to be known. Carl Sagan
Specific Heat Capacity

Specific heat capacity is the amount of thermal energy required to raise the
temperature of 1kg of a substance by 1C​°​. The symbol for specific heat capacity is c.

It follows that the equation for specific capacity is

Q = mc​​Δ​T

lead 130 Jkg​-1​K​-1

copper 390​ Jkg​-1​K​-1
Iron 440 Jkg​-1​K​-1
Aluminum 880 Jkg​-1​K​-1
water 4200 Jkg​-1​K​-1

1. Calculate the specific heat capacity of copper if 3.9x10​3 J of energy can raise the
temperature of 2.0 kg of copper by 5.0​ ​°​C. Add your answer to the table above.

E = mcΔT c = (E)/(mΔT) = 3900/(2 x 5) = 390 400 J kg​-1​ K​-1

2. How much energy is needed to heat a 1.0 kg aluminium pan containing 2.0 kg of
water from 20.0​ ​°​C to 80.0​ ​°​C?

E = mcΔT Q = Q​AL​ + Q​H2O

= (mcΔT)​AL​ + (mcΔT) ​H2O
= 1 (880) 60 + 2 (4200) 60
= 556 800 J

3. An iron rivet with a mass of 50 g is heated strongly for several minutes in a Bunsen
flame. The rivet is then dropped into a copper calorimeter containing 250 g of water.
The temperature of the water (and calorimeter) rises from 20​°​C to 47 ​°​C. Calculate the
original temperature of the iron. Mass of calorimeter = 100 g.

Heat lost by iron = heat gained by water and calorimeter

0.05 x 440 x (T - 47) = 0.25 x 4200 x 27 + 0.1 x 390 x 27

22 ( T – 47) = 29403

T = 1289 ​°​C
Different substances have different specific heat capacities.

Substance c ( Jkg​-1​K​-1​) Relative Particle Mass

lead 130 207
copper 390 64
Iron 440 56
Aluminum 880 27
water 4200 18

Note that the metal with the heaviest molecules has the lowest specific heat capacity.
In kinetic theory temperature represents the average KE of molecules. How does this
2
help to explain the relationship between particle mass and specific heat capacity?

Temperature is the average kinetic energy of molecules. Lead has heavy molecules so 1 kg
of lead contains fewer molecules. When energy is supplied each lead molecule gets more
energy because there are fewer of them. This means that is heats up more.

Water has a very high specific heat capacity. What makes the behavior of water
different from that of the metals in the table when it is heated? Why is this significant
with regard to moderating daily and seasonal changes in temperatures?

It is difficult to change the temperature of water. It heats up slowly and cools slowly. This is
because intermolecular hydrogen bonds make it harder to cause the molecules to vibrate more
quickly. Because water holds heat well, bodies of water do not change temperature as quickly
as the air around them. Thus cities near bodies of water will have less harsh winters.

There are two ways of measuring the specific heat capacity of a substance. Give the
relevant equations and explain how each method works:

2​
​I know that this defies the law of gravity, but, you see, I never studied law. -Bugs Bunny
Direct Method

E supplied by the electric source: E = Pt = VIt

Q absorbed by the block: Q = mc​ΔT

mc​ΔT = VIt therefore c = (VIt)/(mΔT)

Method of Mixtures

In this method, object of known mass (m​o​) at temperature (T​o1​) is placed in a

calorimeter with a cup of known mass containing a known amount of water.

What are the sources of error in the above methods? How will they affect the results?

-heat is lost to the surroundings

-if the object in method of mixtures is too warm, water can be converted to steam and lost to
the environment, so the mL should be accounted for
-for the direct method, the value of c will end up too high
-for method of mixtures, the value of c will end up too low
Phases (states) of matter and latent heat

You will need to be aware of the ​macroscopic and the ​molecular properties of the
different states of matter. You should be able to explain the macroscopic (bulk)
properties using the molecular model. An example of a macroscopic property of a solid
is that it has a fixed shape. This can be explained on the molecular level by saying that
the atoms/molecules do not have enough energy to break away from each other. They
are fixed in position.

Sketch the arrangement of molecules in a solid, a liquid and a gas and note their
properties:

Solid Liquid Gas

Particle
Arrangement

Properties Close Close Far apart

Fixed in place Not fixed in place Particles move
Fixed shape Takes shape of freely
Fixed volume bottom of container Takes shape of
Fixed volume container

Phase changes ​e.g. melting. As the temperature of a solid increases the molecules gain
more thermal energy (kinetic energy). When this thermal energy is about the same as
the intermolecular binding energy the molecules are able to move from their relative
positions and the substance becomes liquid. Note that when the temperature increases
the molecules gain ​kinetic energy and when the substance changes state the ​potential
energy​​ changes.

It is important to note that the ​temperature of the substance ​does not change while the
substance is changing state (melting or boiling). Energy is still being supplied to the
substance but it is being used to increase the potential energies of the particles as they
move apart during change of state. All the energy is being used to increase the
potential energy of the particles so the kinetic energy and therefore temperature do not
change.

Heat a liquid and the molecules gain more vibrational, rotational and kinetic energy. At
the boiling point the molecules have enough energy to break the last intermolecular
bonds and a gas is formed.

The gas particles will have a range of speeds. As the gas is heated the average
temperature of the gas particles increases as must the average kinetic energy of its
3
molecules or atoms.

3​
​In physics, you don't have to go around making trouble for yourself - nature does it for you. ​ ​Frank Wilczek
Latent Heat

A solid is heated at a constant rate and a graph of temperature against time is drawn.

Describe what is happening in each section of the graph in terms of macroscopic

properties and energy:

macroscopic Change in avg kinetic energy Change in potential energy

AB Solid warming Increasing (more vibration) No change
up

BC Solid No change Increase and particles

changing to overcome forces holding
liquid them together
(melting)
CD Liquid Increasing (more vibration, No change
warming up rotational motion)

DE Liquid No change Increase and particles

changing to overcome forces holding
gas (boiling) them together
EF Liquid Increasing (more translational No change
warming up motion)
Definitions:

The ​specific latent heat of fusion of a substance is the energy per unit mass to convert
a substance from solid to liquid at its melting point.

The specific latent heat of vaporisation of a substance is ​the energy per unit mass to
convert a substance from a gas to a vapour at its boiling point.

Q = mL
The equation associated with latent heat is:

L​f​ ice 3.34 x 10​5 ​Jkg​-1

L​v​ water 22.6 x10​5​ Jkg​-1

1. Why is the latent heat of vaporization significantly larger than the latent heat of
fusion for a substance?

The change of state is much more significant for vaporization as the particles
completely overcome the forces between them.

2. a) How much energy is needed to change 3.00 kg of ice at 0.0 ​°​C into 3.00 kg of
water at 0.0​°​C?

E = mL = 3 x 3.34 x 10​5
= 10 x 10​5​ J = 10​6 ​J

b) If the same amount of energy were supplied to the 3.00 kg of water at 100​°​C, what
mass would be converted into steam?

E = mL m = E/L = (10​6​)/ (22.6 x 10​5​) = 0.442 kg

3. 50 g of ice at 0.0 ​°​C is dropped into a copper calorimeter containing 200 g of water
initially at 30.0 ​°​C. The mass of the calorimeter is 150 g. If the final temperature of the
mixture is 12.0 ​°​C calculate the latent heat of fusion of ice.

​ T​ice​ + ​mLice
mcΔ ​ ​ = mcΔT water + mcΔT calorimeter

0.05 x 4200 x 12 + 0.05​L ​ = 0.2 x 4200 x 18 + 0.15 x 390 x 18

2520 + 0.05​L ​ = 15120 + 1053

​L ​ = 2.7 x 10​5​ J kg​-1

4. As an end of term joke some students decide to use ice to cool down the school
swimming pool. Estimate how much ice would be needed to cool the pool by 10​°​C.
Estimate 50m x 25m x 2m (average)

= 2500 m​3 mcΔT​ = mL

ρ = 10​3​ kg m​-3​ m = 2.5 x 10​5​ kg 2.5 x 10​5​ x 4200 x 10 = m x 3.34 x 10​5
m = 3 x 10​5​ kg of ice
Evaporation

Puddles dry up without the water boiling. Evaporation o ​ ccurs at all temperatures in a
liquid. The molecules close to the surface of the liquid with sufficient kinetic energy to
break free from the surface intermolecular bonds will go into the surrounding air to
form a low temperature gas or vapour. The average kinetic energy of the remaining
liquid molecules is reduced and so the liquid cools.

How can the rate of evaporation be increased?

Increase the temperature

The diagram above shows the distribution of speeds of molecules in a substance (it is
called a Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution). What will happen to the average speed of
the molecules if the substance is heated?
it will increase

Draw another curve on the axes above to represent a warmer substance

Use the new curve to explain why the rate of evaporation is higher with a warmer
substance.

There are more fast molecules so more molecules are above the necessary speed to be able to
escape.

What are the differences between ​evaporation and boiling?

Evaporation can happen at any temperature but must occur at the surface of the liquid
Boiling has to happen at the boiling point but can occur anywhere “inside” the liquid