School of Mathematics

Guidelines for writing in mathematics

A correct answer to a mathematical problem is not just a string of equations, but also includes sentences
explaining the method that was used and what the equations mean. Writing mathematics in a clear, precise
and logical way is a communication skill. Like any skill, it takes practice and repetition to master.

The development of mathematical communication skills is one of the major outcomes of your studies in
mathematics. Communication of mathematics is just as important (maybe even more important) than the
actual mathematics. A significant fraction of marks are awarded for communication and presentation.

To get full marks your work

 should contain a clear description of the mathematics that justifies everything you do in full English
sentences;
 should convince the marker that you understand the mathematical ideas as well as the calculations;
 should be neatly presented;
 should be understandable without too much effort by other typical students taking this course;
 should not contain any mistakes (mathematical, logical, spelling, etc.).

In essence, keep your answers clear, concise and to the point, and demonstrate to the reader/marker that
you understand what you are doing.

Writing tips – short version

1. Explain what you are doing

2. Show all the important steps
3. Use correct mathematical notation
4. Present diagrams and graphs
5. Technically correct
6. Remember the little things

Final Advice

These are just a few hints to get you off the ground. The best examples of good mathematical writing you
may have at hand are your text book, the lecture notes and solutions to problem sets and past exams. When
you read these, pay particular attention to how the solutions to problems are presented. Watch the notation
used by your teachers and always ask for clarification when you are not sure about its meaning.

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Writing tips – in more detail

1. Explain what you are doing
 It is important to explain what you are doing.
 Write a clear description of the mathematics, in full sentences. Don’t use abbreviated txt style.
 Write your solutions in the same way that you would use if you were giving a running
commentary of the process to one of your peers – include phrases where they assist.
 Introduce your working with a simple sentence outlining what you intend to do (Eg: I will use
the method of cylindrical shells to find the volume of this solid).
 Keep in mind the assumed background knowledge for this unit. Trivial calculations and minor
concepts need not be explained fully, but everything “new” should be.

2. Show all the important steps

 Make sure that your sentences communicate clearly your ideas, and that these are organised in
an orderly and logical manner.
 Each new statement in a mathematical argument should follow logically from a previous one.
 Give a reason of what has been done on each line, with enough detail so that others can follow
what you are doing and you demonstrate to the marker that you know what you are doing.
 Paragraphs can be used to separate important steps.

3. Use correct mathematical notation

 Define all variables used and state any assumptions you made. For example: Let x be the length
and y the width of the box, measured in metres.
 Only use mathematical symbols that you are sure of their meaning. For example, different types
of brackets have different meanings. Conventionally (x,y), [x,y] and {x,y} are the coordinates of
a point (or an open interval), a closed interval, a set containing 2 elements, respectively.
 When writing sentences do not use mathematics symbols as short hand. Symbols such as ,
 , , , or abbreviations like “iff” and “s.t.”. Instead write the symbols out in full “for all”,
“there exists”, “implies’ “if and only if”, “such that”.
 Only use arrows or logic symbols in logic unit – where they have fixed meanings.
 Starting a sentence with a symbol is considered poor form.

4. Present diagrams and graphs

 Label the graph with a title and label the axes (include units if graphing data).
 Label the important points. For example: turning points on graphs; vertices and line segments on
diagrams.
 Include any other graphing conventions, such as: direction arrows on vectors; tick-marks on
congruent segments.
 Include legends when more than one set of data is plotted on the same graph.
 Is the scale sensible or appropriate? Graphs don’t always need to start at zero, but be clear
where they start.

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 Numbering: In some cases you will have to include diagrams and figures; make sure you number
these correctly (Eg: Figure1, Figure 2, etc) so you can refer to them anywhere in your assignment
(Eg: … as shown in Figure 1).
 Formulas can also be labelled if you need to refer to them in some other parts of your report.

5. Technically correct
 Does not contain any mistakes (mathematical, typographical, grammatical, etc.).
 Is completely self-contained, including the statement of the different problems at the beginning
and a summary of results at the end of each question.

6. Remember the little things

 Include the correct units wherever appropriate.
 Check that your final paragraph gives the answer to the question asked.
 Check that your answer makes sense.
 Are there any limitations on the results? Were any additional assumptions made?
 Check the spelling and grammar.
 Make a clean copy of your work. If your handwriting is illegible, whatever you are writing about
will not be counted.

Commonly used words and phrases when writing in mathematics

 Therefore  Let … be …  This follows from …
 Hence  This proves that  Let … , where … is …
 It follows that  Using … we have …  Consequently
 Then  After simplification, we find  As a result
 In conclusion that …

Elements of a good mathematical/statistical/scientific report

Statistical and scientific reports also follow the same general outline as a solution to a mathematics question.

 State question/aim
 Define variables
 Outline techniques used
 State the result
 Check validity of solution and draw conclusions

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Appendix A: A question with 5 example answers

Question:
Use the addition and double-angle formulae to derive an expression for sin (3𝑥) in terms of sin 𝑥.

For this problem there are three key steps in the solution process (see below), each of which might be
awarded marks in a typical marking scheme. Additional marks might be awarded for stating clearly the
correct final answer. In addition to those technical details, marks might typically be awarded for a clear
explanation of the reasoning used and correct use of mathematical notation. (Note that the explanations
and notation might attract more or fewer marks than shown here.)

Answer 1 - Only the final answer is given

sin(3𝑥) = 3sin 𝑥 − 4sin3 𝑥

Comments: Although the answer is correct, you are expected to demonstrate that you understand how to
solve a problem using mathematical reasoning, not just that you know the answer. This ‘solution’ might
receive perhaps 1 mark because getting the final answer correct is usually worth a small amount in most
marking schemes, but most of the marks for the question are awarded for showing the main steps and
explaining clearly how to obtain the answer.

Answer 2 - Steps partially shown, but no explanations and incorrect mathematical

notation
sin(3𝑥) ⇒ sin 𝑥 cos(2𝑥) + cos 𝑥 sin(2𝑥)
⇒ sin𝑥 (1 − 2sin2 𝑥) + cos𝑥 (2sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥)

∴ 3sin 𝑥 − 4sin3 𝑥

Comments: There are no explanations or reasoning given or argument made. There is no English used. The
expression on the final line is the correct final result but incorrect mathematical notation has been used. The
‘implies’ symbol (⇒) and ‘therefore’ symbol () were used when an equals sign should have been used. Only
partial marks would be awarded, with zero marks for the correct use of mathematical notation.

Answer 3 - A mathematically correct but overly brief solution

Use sin(𝑥 + 𝑦) = sin 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + cos 𝑥 sin 𝑦 , with y=2x then sin3𝑥 = sin 𝑥 cos 2𝑥 + cos𝑥 sin 2𝑥.
Also sin(2𝑥) = 2sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 and cos(2𝑥) = 1 − 2sin2 𝑥 ∴ sin(3𝑥) = 3sin 𝑥 cos2 𝑥 − sin3 𝑥 .
Use cos2 𝑥 = 1 − sin2 𝑥 then sin(3𝑥) = 3sin𝑥 − 4sin3 𝑥 .

Comments: This answer includes a little more detail on the main steps but more words are needed to
explain clearly what was being done and the reasoning behind each step. The sentences are grammatically
poor. The answer do not include sufficient information for the method to be reproduced by an uninformed
reader (most students would feel unsatisfied if this was provided in a textbook). The solution would receive
some marks for the method and correct use of mathematical notation but zero marks for the explanation.

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Answer 4 – One example of a complete solution

To obtain an expression for sin(3𝑥), use ‘summation formula’ sin(𝑥 + 𝑦) = sin 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + cos 𝑥 sin 𝑦 and
let 𝑦 = 2𝑥. This gives
sin(3𝑥) = sin(𝑥 + 2𝑥) = sin 𝑥 cos(2𝑥) + cos 𝑥 sin(2𝑥) .
Use the sine and cosine double-angle formulae to substitute for sin(2𝑥) = 2sin 𝑥 cos𝑥 and cos(2𝑥) =
cos2 𝑥 − sin2 𝑥. Then sin(3𝑥)can be written as
sin(3𝑥) = sin 𝑥 (cos2 𝑥 − sin2 𝑥) + cos 𝑥 (2sin𝑥 cos𝑥) = 3sin𝑥 cos2 𝑥 − sin3 𝑥.
The remaining cos2 𝑥 term in this expression can be written in terms of sin𝑥 by using the Pythagorean
identity written in the form cos2 𝑥 = 1 − sin2 𝑥. Substituting it into the expression for sin(3𝑥) above
gives that
sin(3𝑥) = 3sin𝑥 (1 − sin2 𝑥) − sin3 𝑥 = 3sin 𝑥 − 4sin3 𝑥
Therefore sin(3𝑥) can be written in terms of sin𝑥 as: sin(3𝑥) = 3sin 𝑥 − 4sin3 𝑥.

Comments: Notice how complete sentences are used to explain the reasoning behind each step, and
intermediate mathematical steps are used to demonstrate the method. Also any additional results that are
needed are stated so the reader knows their origin. The final answer is also stated in a full sentence to
demonstrate that the requested problem has been solved as required. (If you were asked to repeat this
problem with cos(3x) written in terms of cosx then it should be easy to follow the same approach.)

Answer 5 - The final answer is correct but the method does not match the
instructions
Note that 𝑒 3𝑖𝑥 = (cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑥)3 from Euler’s formula 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 = cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑥 and the index laws.
Expanding the cube and separating into real and imaginary parts gives that
(cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑥)3 = (cos3 𝑥 − 3sin2 𝑥 cos 𝑥) + 𝑖(3cos2 𝑥 sin 𝑥 − sin3 𝑥) .
Taking the imaginary part of this implies that
sin(3𝑥) = Im{𝑒 3𝑖𝑥 } = 3cos2 𝑥 sin 𝑥 − sin3 𝑥 .
Since cos2 𝑥 = 1 − sin2 𝑥, this can be written in terms of sin𝑥 as
sin(3𝑥) = 3(1 − sin2 𝑥)sin𝑥 − sin3 𝑥
and then collecting similar terms gives that
sin(3𝑥) = 3sin𝑥 − 4sin3 𝑥.

Comments: Again the answer is correct, but notice that the question asked you to ‘Use the addition and
double-angle formulae …’ so you should follow those instructions – rather than find some other way to reach
the answer. While the steps used were explained well, and it is technically correct, marks will be lost for not
stating and using the formulae that were requested in the question. Note that if the question had included
‘or otherwise’, then the solution above would receive full marks. If you are interested in mathematics and
want to show to the marker that you know another way to solve the problem then certainly do that, but
make sure that you also complete it in the manner requested.

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Appendix B: Common notation

Sets - let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be sets

𝑥 ∈ 𝐴
𝑥 is a member of, is an element of, belongs to, or is in the set A
𝐴∋𝑥
𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵 A is a subset of B, includes A = B
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 the union of sets A and B
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 the intersection of sets A and B
𝐴\𝐵 the difference of sets A and B
𝐴 × 𝐵 the Cartesian product of sets A and B; also written as A2 if A = B
{𝑥: 𝑃(𝑥)} the set of 𝑥 such that 𝑃(𝑥) is true
{𝑥|𝑃(𝑥)} For example, {x ∶ 0 < x < 1} is the set of all x which lie strictly between 0 and 1.
 the empty set

N the set of all natural numbers. Caution: sometimes 0 is included - check which
convention is being used.
Z the set of all integers
Q the set of all rational numbers
R the set of all real numbers
C the set of all complex numbers

Logic – let P and Q be logical statements

P⇒Q P implies Q ; P is sufficient for Q
Q⇐P Q is necessary for P
P⇔Q P holds if and only if Q holds ; P and Q are logically equivalent
¬P the negation of P
PQ P and Q
PQ P or Q (or both)
 the quantifier “exists”
𝑥 the quantifier ”for all”

Functions – let A and B be sets, let 𝑓 ∶ 𝐴 → 𝐵 be a function

𝑓∶ 𝐴→𝐵 a function with domain A, range (co-domain) B and image 𝑓(𝐴) ⊂ 𝐵
𝑓 −1 the inverse of 𝑓 (if it exists)
𝑓(𝑎) the image of 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 under f
𝑓 −1 (𝑏) the preimage of 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 under f
𝑓𝑔 the composition of two functions (first 𝑔 then f)
𝐵𝐴 the set of all functions from A to B

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Probability – let A and B be events, let X be a random variable

P(A) the probability of the event A
P(A ∩ B)
the probability of the joint event A and B
P(A and B)
P(A ∪ B)
the probability of the event A or B (or both)
P(A or B)
P(A  B) the conditional probability of event A given that event B has occurred
E( X ) the expected value of X

Miscellaneous
 infinity
𝑛
∑ 𝑥𝑖 the sum 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + . . . + 𝑥𝑛
𝑖=1
𝑛
∏ 𝑥𝑖 the product 𝑥1 . 𝑥2 . … . 𝑥𝑛
𝑖=1
𝑛! 𝑛 factorial (for a positive integer 𝑛)

A list of Greek letters used in mathematics, science & engineering can be found on Wikipedia.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_letters_used_in_mathematics,_science,_and_engineering

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