MODULE 1

CELL BASIC UNIT OF LIFE

Introduction: Structure and functions of a cell. Stem cells and their application.

Biomolecules: Properties and functions of Carbohydrates, Nucleic acids, proteins,

lipids.

Importance of special biomolecules: Properties and functions of enzymes, vitamins

and hormones.
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/121106008

Introduction

WHY BIOLOGY?

 … offering interdisciplinary perspectives and potential applications in areas such

as bioinformatics, computational biology and medical technology.

 It enhances the student's ability to integrate biological concepts into computer

science advancements.

 It is well known that this is the century of biology in which significant advances
in the understanding and application of biological systems are expected.
 The significant impact on the world is expected in terms of better healthcare,
better processes, better products and an overall better quality of life.
 Thus, any person can be interested in knowing the fundamentals of biology to be
able to understand, or participate in the biological revolution.
 For example, any engineer, irrespective of the parent discipline (mechanical,
electrical, civil, chemical, metallurgical, etc.,) has a high probability of using the
disciplinary skills toward designing/improving biological systems in the future.

CELL:

 It is the fundamental unit of life.

 It represents the smallest structural and functional entity of living organism.

CELL FORMATION:

Life originated from creation of cells, their complexity and organization. So the
process and formation of cell can be categorized as FOLLOWING:

 Prokaryotic : they lack a true nucleus. Ex- BACTERIA

 Eukaryotic : they have a true nucleus and membranes surround the organs inside
the cell. Ex- FOUND IN PLANTS ANIMALS, FUNGI.
Summarizing: Cell formation is the first stage of life., with nucleus and other
organelle’s.

CELL DIVISION:

 Cell has the ability to divide (multiply), through the process of mitosis
(eukaryotic) or meiosis.

 This division is very essential for growth, development and maintenance of living
organism.

MULTI CELLULARITY:

 Over the time, cells multiply, and give rise to multicellular structure.

 They further form specialized cell types, which will have distinctive function

 They also give rise to tissues, organs, and organ systems.

DIFFERENTIATION :

 Cells within Multicellular organism under go differentiation process.

 I.e., they undergo their own special changes to acquire special structure based on
their own requirement, functions and environmental conditions .

 This enables the cells to perform specific tasks within the organism.

ORGANISM FORMATION :

 Combination of specialized cells or tissues or multicellular structure or organs,

results in the formation of a complete organism.

 Organisms can range from simple to complex

 Organisms emerged based on organization and coordination of cells.

REPRODUCTION :

 Organisms reproduce to pass their genetic information like memory, physical

characteristics and other features.

 Types of reproduction: sexual/asexual.

ADAPTATION AND EVOLUTION :

 Over generations living organisms undergo adaptation and evolution.

 New species of animals or animal kingdom may evolve based on requirements or
environmental conditions.

 Genetic material within the cell can change through mutation and based on
natural selection leading to development of diverse species.

ECOLOGICAL INTERACTIONS :

 Organisms interact with environment and with each other in complex eco system.

 These interactions contribute to the balance of life and sustainability of eco

system.

Introduction to Cell Structure

 Cells are the basic units of life …They are Classified as prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells (membrane bound cells).

 Cell Components

• Cell Membrane : It surrounds the cell.

It regulates entry and exit of any substance.
It is semi permeable, water and air can pass through it.
It acts as protective cover.

• Nucleus (present in Eukaryotic Cells) : It contains genetic material like

DNA.
Its known as “brain” of cell
since it controls all activities of
the cell.

• Cytoplasm : It is gel like substance present inside cell membrane.

It has organelles and it helps them to float and also holds them.

• Organelles : They are specialized structure, with specific functions

Example- Mitochondrion produces energy in a cell.

Fig 1. Schematic of A Prokaryotic Cell

 As in figure 1, cells do not have well defined nucleus but only nucleoid is present,
looks like bacteria with long tail and shape.
 Cytoplasm , Cell wall and cell membrane present.
 Capsule like Nucleoid is present.
 Organelles like Plasmid, Ribosomes are present.

Fig 2. Schematic of A Eukaryotic Cell

 As shown in figure 2, cells have well defined nucleus and has complex structure.
 Its slightly oval in shape.
 It has Ribosomes, Endoplasmic reticulum, Mitochondrion, Centrosomes, Golgi
body, Lysosome.

Functions of a cell.

 Cellular Respiration :

 Means generation of energy.

 The Mitochondrion, generates energy in the form of Adinosine Tri Phosphate
(ATP), through cellular respiration.
 It is a process of producing energy by cell.

 Photosynthesis (in Plant Cells) :

 Process of generating food by cells present in plant leaves.

 Plants absorb water from soil using roots, which gets transferred to leaves.
 Leaves contain specialized cells called CHLOROPLAST that converts sunlight
into glucose.

 DNA Replication and Cell Division :

 The Nucleus (Eucrayotic) having DNA has this process.

 DNA produces single strand, that will grow into double strand and replicates it.
 Replication and division of cell is controlled by cell for the purpose of growth in
animals.

 Protein Synthesis :

 Ribosomes synthesis proteins using the feed (genetic information) given by

nucleus.
 Proteins are generated in cells and are very essential for any animal.
 Type of protein to be generated in cell is decided by genetic information or DNA.
 Based on requirement proteins are synthesized or supplied.

STEM CELLS and their Application

.

Introduction to Stem Cell

 Stem cells are unique cells.

 They have the ability to develop into various specialized cell types (cells in heart,
kidney, eyes are all different)…
 They play very crucial role in growth, mainly tissue repair.

Types

1. Embryonic Stem Cells

 These are derived from embryo.

 They have potential to become any body cells and forms.
 For example, these cells can become heart cells and tissues or they can become
kidney cells and so on.
 After fertilization, within 3 days the healthy embryo is formed and it will contain
upto 6 to 10 embryo cells as in figure 3.

Figure 3. Embryonic Stem Cells

 Within a week a fertilized egg is formed and its called Blastocyst.

 From embryo, cells are separated and stored, for research purpose.
 Figure 4. Examples of Embryonic Stem Cells

2. Adult or Somatic Stem Cells

 These cells are found in various tissues.

 These cells are obtained from specialized organelles and are adult/ grown up
cells.
 If cells are taken from brain, then they become Brain Somatic stem cells, if taken
from heart, they become heart somatic stem cells.
 Each cells perform their particular role.
 They can be used to replace damaged cells in organs accordingly.

Figure 5. Somatic Stem Cells

Applications

 Regenerative Medicine : Stem cells are used to regenerate damaged tissues &
organs.
1. Tissue Repair
2. Orthopedic Treatments : Joint and bone regeneration
 Treatment of Diseases
1. Blood Disorders : treating Anaemia, leukemia by replacing blood cells.
2. Neurological Disorders : In Parkinson and Alzheimer diseases.

 Drug Development and Testing : For testing new drugs before using on
animals.

 Understanding Disease Mechanisms : In labs and controlled manner, diseases

and their spread and control, can be studied using stem cells.

 Cell-Based Therapies : To address various medical conditions and treating a

particular malignant cell to stop spreading of disease.

 Personalized Medicine : Tailoring treatments based on personalized traits and

genetics and characteristics.

Challenges

 Controlling Cell Differentiation : ensure precise control of differentiation of

stem cells into specific stem cells.

 Genetic Stability : Maintaining stability during their growth, so that mutation /

abnormalities does not happen.

 Tumor Formation : Potential of stem cells to form tumors to be addressed.

 Immunological Rejection : In some treatments body may not accept stem cells
injected in / may be bio incompatible, this called immunology rejection.

Ethical Considerations

 Source of Stem Cells :

 The concern here is in using the embryonic cell. It involves disturbing the
embryo.
 There are many debates happening on sanctity of human life.
 The challenge here is, in balancing, scientific progress with ethical concerns.

 Informed Consent :

 The source of embryo is a concern as it is only few cells.

 Bio technologist has to take consent before taking the Stem cells for research and
treatment

 Global Regulations :

 There are different rules and regulations in different countries.

 Universal guidelines are required in this area of study.
 Commercialization and Access :
 Making the therapy as a business, the affordability becomes a major challenge for
general population.
 It is a concern, so government should ensure fairness here.

Biomolecules:

Introduction to Biomolecules:

 Biomolecules are the building blocks of life.

 They play very crucial roles in the structure and functioning of living organisms.

Key Bio molecules are as follows:

1. Carbohydrates :

 They play very crucial role as fuel supply, supporting growth and facilitate energy
release.

2. Nucleic Acids :

 They are fundamentals for inheritance, animal character, nature, behaviour, are
similar to their ancestors.
 These are responsible for Good/Bad things and genetic diversity.
 DNA & RNA are used to synthesize proteins that are essential for life process.

3. Proteins :

 They Contribute to regulation of biological process forming the cellular structure.

 They catalyse many chemical reaction happening in our body, for growth and
other purpose.
 They speed up biological reactions.

4. Lipids :

 These are needed for maintaining cell integrity / shape.

 Provide protective barrier acting as a membrane
 Serve as reserve energy source.

CARBOHYDRATES

 These are class of organic compounds.

 They play crucial role in biology and are important energy source.

 They are composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) atoms and are
classified based on their molecular structure and function.
 General formula is Cn(H2O)n
 Simple Carbohydrates obey this formula where as complex carbohydrates do not
obey this formula.

 They are classified as follows:

 Monosaccharides
 Disaccharides
 Polysaccharides

Monosaccharides :

 Simple form of Carbohydrates and are water soluble.

 Having single structure and serve as primary source of energy.

 Carbon having double bond with Oxygen or with single bond

 Example: - Glucose, Fructose.

Figure 6. Glucose

Figure 7. Glucose, Fructose & Galactose

Disaccharides :

 Two monosaccharides combined becomes Disaccharides

 They are formed by condensation of 2 monosaccharides

 They are commonly found in Sugar and broken down into monosaccharides.
 Example: Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose

Figure 8. Sucrose, Lactose & Maltose

Polysaccharides :

 Poly means “many”.

 Many such saccharides combined.

 These are long chain mono saccharides that are linked together.

 Storage molecules of energy.

 Example: Glycogen in animal, Starch in plant.

 Cellulose in plants play an important role as cellular processors i.e, cellular

processes [ signaling, recognition ( identifying things ), and in reflecting gene
expressions ]

Figure 9. Glycogen

Figure 10. Starch

 Figure 11. Cellulose

NUCLEIC ACIDS:

 They are long chain biological polymers.

 Same Molecules are repeated many times in sequence.
 It is used for storage and transfer of genetic information.
 Artificial Nucleic Acids are also synthesized now-a-days.
 Types: DeoxyRibonucleic Acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic Acid (RNA).
 Both are used for processes like replication, Transcription , Translation of genetic
information.

Figure 12. DNA and RNA Schematic representation.

DNA:
 DNA information is for development, functioning and for reproduction.
 It is actually double stranded helical structure.
 It consists of sugar molecules, phosphates, and Nitrogen bases like Adenine,
Guanine, Cytosine and Thymine.

RNA:

 It involves expression of genetic information stored in DNA by carrying the

message from DNA to RNA.
 Used to duplicate the genetic information by separating 1 strand from DNA, and
this strand is called messenger RNA(mRNA).
 mRNA carries the information of various nucleotides and their sequence.
 The mRNA becomes a copy of DNA, and is used to build/ produce proteins.
 It acts as a base structure, to act and combine, with amino acids, to produce
protein, based on requirement.

PROTEINS

 Proteins are large, complex molecules made up of chains of smaller building

blocks called amino acids.
 Proteins play vital role in forming structure.
 Each protein is formed by different aminoacids.
 There are totally 20 amino acids, out of which 9 are essential and 11 are non
essential aminoacids.
My Intuition
Essential Amino Acids (9):

 Essential for body and has to be taken through diet/ or supply through food.

1. Histidine
2. Isoleucine
3. Leucine
4. Lysine
5. Methionine
6. Phenylalanine
7. Threonine
8. Tryptophan
9. Valine

Non-Essential Amino Acids (11):

 Essential for body and generated/ synthesized in body whenever required.

1) Alanine
2) Arginine
3) Asparagine
4) Aspartic Acid
5) Cysteine
6) Glutamic Acid
7) Glutamine
8) Glycine
9) Proline
10) Serine
11) Tyrosine

LIPIDS

 Lipids are a group of organic compounds that include fats, oils, waxes, and some
hormones.
 They form membrane structure.
 Our body has 70% water.

Figure 13. Lipids

 Head of Lipid has interaction with water molecules where as tail does not..
 Non Polar come together to form a spherical or other structure as seen in figure
13.

Figure 14. Phospholipid (head)

Figure 15. Triglyceride (tail)

PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES

Properties

1. Chemical Composition:

 Composition: They are organic compounds.

They are composed of Carbon, Hydrogen & Oxygen atoms in the
ratio 1:2:1 respectively.
Carbon molecules are hydrophilic.

 Monomers: These are basic building blocks of Carbohydrates. They are

constructed from monosaccharides such as glucose & fructose.

2. Solubility:

 Water Solubility: Most carbohydrates are highly soluble in water due

carbohydrates having functional group called hydroxyl group. They are
hydrophilic in nature.

3. Classification:

 Simple and Complex: Carbohydrates are classified into simple sugars

(monosaccharides and disaccharides) Ex- Glucose or into complex carbohydrates
(polysaccharides ) Ex- Glycogen .

4. Dietry fibre:

 They also act as dietry fibre. Carbohydrates have bonds between its molecules
called Glycosedic bond.

Functions

1. Energy Source :

 Primary Role : Carbohydrates serve as a primary source of energy for living

organisms.

 Conversion : Monosaccharides (particularly Glucose) are broken down through

the process called cellular respiration which generates ATP.
 ATP’s are the universal energy currency of cells. They power the essential
actions like muscle contraction.

2. Energy Storage:
 Glycogen (in Animals): Excess glucose is stored in the form of glycogen in
animals, primarily in the liver and muscles.
 If energy is required by body Glucogen can be broken down to form glucose.

 Starch (in Plants): Plants store surplus glucose as starch in various plant tissues
like seeds and fruits, which serve as energy reserve.

3. Structural Support:

 Cellulose (in Plants): These are complex Carbohydrates. They contribute to

provide structural rigidity (plants stand straight and maintain their shape).
 They provide structural support to plant cell walls through the formation of
cellulose

4. Transport of Energy:

 Sucrose : Carbohydrates like sucrose facilitate the transport of energy in the form
of sugars within plants.
 It is synthesized in leaves & then transported in plants to provide energy to plants.

5. Quick Energy Release:

 Glucose: It is readily available energy. Rapid breakdown of glucose (through

cellular respiration) provides quick energy for cellular processes.

6. Metabolic Regulation:

 Blood Sugar Regulation: Carbohydrates play a vital role in regulating blood sugar
levels by controlling release of glucose in blood, ensuring a steady energy supply.
 Fibres also help in regulating blood sugar levels.

PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEIC ACIDS (Biomolecules)

Properties

1. Sequence Specificity:

 The sequence of nitrogenous bases (AGTC) along the nucleic acid chain is
specific and carries genetic information and code.
 Any small change in Nitrogen base, alters the entire genetic code.

2. Double Helix (DNA):

 DNA has a double-helix structure, where two strands wind around each other to
represent a twisted ladder structure.
 Hydrogen bonds are present between complimentary base pairs. ( A--> T , G-->
C)

3. Single-Stranded (RNA):
 RNA is usually single stranded, with various types like messenger- mRNA,
transfer- tRNA, and ribosomal- rRNA.
 mRNA- Carries genetic information from DNA to Ribosome. Based on the
genetic code amino acids convert to Protein & Protein synthesis occurs.
 tRNA- It delivers the amino acid to Ribosome where mRNA is waiting for
protein synthesis.
 rRNA- It forms the structure of Ribosome which actually synthesizes the Protein.

4. Genetic Code:

 Nucleic acids encode the genetic information.

 These acids determines the traits and characteristics of living organisms.
 It decides how organism functions.

5. Complementary Base Pairing:

 In DNA, Adenine pairs with Thymine, and Guanine pairs with Cytosine, forming
complementary base pairs.
 Holds 2 strands together.
 Helps in copying of Genetic Information during cell division.

6. Role in Protein Synthesis:

 Protein are essential for various functions.

 DNA stores the code for protein synthesis.
 Nucleic acids facilitate protein synthesis by carrying and translating genetic
instructions.

7. Essential for Heredity:

 Nucleic acids (particularly DNA) are vital for the inheritance of genetic traits
from one generation to the next.

8. Cellular Regulation:

 Nucleic Acids participate in regulating cellular processes, gene expression, and

controlling various metabolic activities. Done by controlling Genes ON and OFF
at particular time.

Functions

1) Genetic Information Storage:

 Nucleic acids, particularly DNA, store and carry genetic information that dictates
the hereditary characteristics of living organisms.
 DNA is a master molecule, that acts as a secure storage device for genetic
information, that defines an organism.

2) Protein Synthesis:
 Nucleic acids (NA) are instruments for protection of proteins.
 NA do this through the process of transcription (genetic code in DNA is separated
to form mRNA) and translation ( process of the Amino acids going to rRNA and
protein synthesized), play a crucial role in the synthesis of proteins. These are the
building blocks of cells

3) Cellular Regulation:

 They participate in the regulation of various cellular processes ( Differentiation ).

 NA regulate gene expression influencing the overall functioning of cells.

4) Hereditary Transmission:

 Nucleic acids are responsible for transmitting hereditary traits from parents to
offspring, ensuring the continuity of genetic information.
 Replication of DNA is involved here.

5) Transfer of Genetic Code:

 mRNA, a type of nucleic acid, carries the genetic code from DNA to the
ribosomes, where protein synthesis occurs.
 mRNA bridges gap between DNA and Ribosomes.

6) Enzymatic Activities:

 Some nucleic acids, like ribozymes, exhibit enzymatic activities, participating in

biochemical reactions within cells.

7) Energy Transfer:

 Nucleic acids contribute to the transfer and storage of energy in the form of
Adenosine Tri Phosphate (ATP).
 ATP is a molecule crucial for cellular energy transfer.

8) Cellular Signaling:

 Certain nucleic acids are involved in cellular signaling pathways, influencing

responses to external stimuli and environmental changes.

9) Maintenance of Cell Structure:

 Nucleic acids contribute to the maintenance and integrity of cell structures,

influencing cell division and growth.

10) Synthesis of Biomolecules:

 They are involved in the synthesis of various biomolecules, contributing to the

overall structure and function of living organisms.

PROPERTIES and FUNCTIONS OF Proteins

Properties

1. Structure:

 Proteins exhibit a complex three-dimensional structure determined by their amino

acid sequence.
 Properties and Shape of proteins is determined by arrangement of Amino acids.
 They have primary, secondary (alpha helix structure, beta sheet structure),
tertiary, and quarternary structural levels.
 Structure is crucial for protein functions.

2. Amino Acid Composition:

 Proteins are composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.

 The specific arrangement of amino acids dictates the protein's structure and
function.
 These may contain heterophilic/ hydrophobic, structure (combination) of
compounds.

3. Solubility:

 Proteins can vary in solubility, with some being soluble in water (hydrophilic)
and others in lipids (hydrophobic).
 This feature determines how they work in a cell.

4. Denaturation:

 Proteins can undergo denaturation ( lose its shape or property or functions (de-
natured) ) due to factors like heat, pH changes, or chemicals, resulting in loss of
structure and function.

5. Specificity:

 Proteins exhibit specificity in their interactions with other molecules.

 Each type is designed for a particular function or molecular interaction.

6. Biological Functions:

 Proteins serve diverse biological roles, including enzymes.

 Enzymes catalyze chemical reactions in body, antibodies for immune response,
and structural proteins for support that move molecules in body.

7. Flexibility:

 Proteins can change their conformation to adapt to different biological

environments and perform their functions more effectively.

8. Binding and Recognition:

 Proteins can bind to other molecules, facilitating cellular processes such as
communication, signaling and transport.

9. Catalytic Activity:

 Many proteins act as enzymes, accelerating biochemical reactions within cells

10. Diversity:

 The diversity of proteins allows them to carry out a wide range of functions
critical to cellular life.
 Each protein has different/ unique function.

Functions
1. Enzymatic Activity:

 Example: Catalase is an enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of hydrogen

peroxide into water and oxygen.

2. Structural Support:

 Example: Collagen (structural protein) provides structural support to connective

tissues in skin, bones, and tendons.

3. Transportation:

 Example: Hemoglobin transports oxygen molecules from the lungs to tissues and
carries carbon dioxide back to the lungs.

4. Defense and Immunity:

 Example: Antibodies defend against pathogens by recognizing and neutralizing

foreign substances.

5. Cell Signaling:

 Example: Insulin is a signaling protein that regulates glucose uptake by cells.

6. Motion and Contraction:

 Example: Actin (gives direction of contraction/ movement) and myosin (contracts/

relaxes based on directions) are proteins involved in muscle contraction and cell
movement.
 They work together as intricate machine generating force.

7. Hormonal Regulation:
 Example: Insulin and glucagon (helps in release of glucose to blood when blood
sugar levels reduce) are hormones (protein) that regulate blood sugar levels.

8. Storage of Molecules:

 Example: Ferritin stores iron in a soluble and non-toxic form within cells &
ensures its readily availability for transport of molecules.

9. Catalysis of Metabolic Reactions:

 Example: Lipase is an enzyme that acts as catalyzes and breakdown lipids during
digestion.

10. Regulation of Gene Expression:

 Example: Transcription factors are proteins that regulate the expression of genes
during protein synthesis.

11. Sensory Response:

 Example: Rhodopsin is a light-sensitive protein involved in vision.

12. Blood Clotting:

 Example: Fibrinogen is a protein involved in the blood clotting cascade.

13. Buffering and pH Regulation:

 Example: Hemoglobin helps maintain the pH balance in red blood cells.

14. Energy Source:

 Example: In starvation, proteins can be broken down into amino acids for energy
production.