Computer Network

UNIT 2
 Analog Signals and Digital Signals
• Signal is an electromagnetic or electrical current that carries data
from one system or network to another.
• There are two main types of signals used in electronics: analog and
digital signals.
• Analog Signal An analog signal is time-varying and generally bound
to a range (e.g. +12V to -12V), but there is an infinite number of
values within that continuous range.
 Digital Signal
• A digital signal is a signal that represents data as a sequence of discrete
values. A digital signal can only take on one value from a finite set of possible
values at a given time. With digital signals, the physical quantity representing
the information can be many things:
• Variable electric current or voltage
• Phase or polarization of an electromagnetic field
• Acoustic pressure
• The magnetization of a magnetic storage media
Analog Vs Digital Signal
 Data Rate limits
• Data rate refers to the speed of data transfer through a channel. It is
generally computed in bits per second (bps). Higher data rates are
expressed as Kbps ("Kilo" bits per second, i.e.1000 bps), Mbps
("Mega" bits per second, i.e.1000 Kbps), Gbps ("Giga" bits per
second, i.e. 1000 Mbps) and Tbps ("Tera" bits per second, i.e. 1000
Gbps).

• One of the main objectives of data communications is to increase the

data rate. There are three factors that determine the data rate of a
channel:
– Bandwidth of the channel
– Number of levels of signals that are used
– Noise present in the channel
 Digital to Digital Line Coding
Schemes
• The process of converting the digital data into digital signal is called
as line coding
• It helps the receiver to get the original bits.
• The data that is in the form of text, numbers, audio, or video is
represented internally as series of 1s and 0s.
• Line coding therefore transforms a set of bits into a digital signal.
• The sender side encrypts digital data into digital signals, while the
receiving side decodes the digital signal to regenerate the digital
data.
• The primary goal of utilizing line coding is to prevent the
overlapping of pulses and distortions. The digital signal is discreet in
nature. Example is sending data from computer to printer.
 Digital to Digital Line Coding
Schemes
• There are basically three different types of line coding technique:
• Unipolar
• Polar
• Bipolar
Unipolar
• In Unipolar encoding, only one polarity is used i.e., bit 1 is used to
represent positive voltage and bit 0 is used to represent zero voltage
or idle line. It is also known as Unipolar-Non-return-to-zero.
Signaling of this kind is also referred to as on-off signaling.
 Digital to Digital Line Coding
Schemes
• Problem in Unipolar
• DC Component: When we find out the average amplitude of a unipolar
signal, then the value would always be non-zero because of which it
creates DC component. And the signal having DC component is not able
to travel through the medium which cannot handle DC component.
• Synchronization: When a signal is constant, the receiver cannot
distinguish between the start and finish of each bit. For that the receiver
has to rely on a timer to track the starting of each bit.
Polar
• The polar encoding is of four types.
• In polar encoding two levels of voltage amplitude is used. The DC component
issue of unipolar encoding is minimized, and the average voltage level on the line
is decreased.
• Polar Non-Return to Zero (Polar NRZ): In polar encoding, positive voltage is
represented by bit 1 and negative voltage is represented by bit 0. Here two levels
of voltage are used to represent binary values. If the line is idle, then there is no
transition. With each inversion, the receiver is able to synchronize the timer’s start
to the transmission’s real arrival. Again, Polar Non-Return to Zero (Polar NRZ)
has two types: NRZ-L and NRZ-I.

NRZ-L: Changes its voltage level when different bit

is encountered.
• NRZ-I: Changes its voltage level when bit 1 is
encountered.

.
• Advantages of Polar NRZ
• This provides synchronization as whenever a 1 bit is encountered, the signal changes.
• Return to Zero (RZ): This encoding technique uses three different voltage level to
represent binary values. Bit 1 is used to represent positive voltage, bit 0 is used to
represent negative voltage and zero voltage for none. During the second half of each
bit, this signal enters a resting state(zero).
• Problems in Return to Zero
• This occupies more bandwidth as it requires two signal changes to encode one bit.

Return to Zero (RZ)

 Manchester Encoding:
•  In Manchester encoding negative to positive transition represents
binary 1 and positive to negative represents binary 0. Use the
inversion at the middle of each bit interval. That means bit period is
represented by two equal size intervals. Here the logic level of bit is
represented by the first interval and the inverse logic level is
represented by the second interval.

Manchester encoding
Differential Manchester
• In Differential Manchester, the inversion at the middle of the bit is used.
Transition is represented by binary 0 and no transition is represented by
binary 1.

Bipolar Encodinng Different Manchester

• Bipolar Encoding
• In Bipolar encoding, three types of different voltage level is used that is
positive, negative and zero. The zero level is used to represent binary 0,
positive and negative voltage represents alternatives 1’s to prevent DC
component. Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) and Pseudoternary are the
types of bipolar encoding.
Analog to Digital Conversion
When an analog signal is digitalized, that is known as analog-to-digital
conversion. Consider a human address a voice in the structure of an analog
signal. We require to digitalize the analog signal that is smaller inclined to noise.
It needed a decrease in the several values in an analog message defined in the
digital flow.
 Methods for Analog-To-Digital Conversion
• The various methods for Analog-to-Digital conversion are as follows −
PAM
• The first phase in analog to digital conversion is known as PAM. PAM
represents pulse amplitude modulation. This method creates an analog signal,
samples it, and creates digital pulses sequences based on sampling. The sampling
method used in PAM is more helpful to other manufacturing fields than data
communication. PAM is the infrastructure of an essential analog-to-digital conversion
method known as pulse code modulation (PCM).
• In PAM, the initial signal is sampled at the same intervals, as display in the figure.
PAM uses a method known as a sample and hold.
 PCM
• PCM represents Pulse Code
Modulation. PCM method can
change the pulses generated
by PAM to develop a
completely digital signal. To
manage this, PCM first
measures the PAM pulses.
Quantization is a technique of
authorizing integral values in a
particular area to sampled
instances. The outcome of
quantization is shown in the
figure.
The figure displays a simple method of creating sign and magnitude costs to quantized
samples. Each cost is interpreted into a six-bit binary proportionate. The seventh bit denoted
the sign. Quantizing using sign and magnitude. +25 0011001 +39 0100111 -50 1110010 +38
0100110 +26 0011010 +52 0110100 +49 0110001 -15 1001111 +46 0101110 Where sign bit
for + is 0 and for – is 1. Sampling Rate As shown in the previous figure, the
efficiency of any digital recreation of an analog signal depends on the several samples taken.
Using PAM and PCM, we can recreate the waveform precisely by creating infinite samples,
or we can make the barest generalization of its direction of change by creating three samples
of +24, +48, and +50.
From analog signal to PCM digital code −
Serial and Parallel Transmission
Serial and Parallel Transmission
Data transmission is the process of data delivery between two or multiple digital
devices. The data is transmitted between digital systems using one of two
methods: Serial or Parallel Transmission. They have some commonalities and
some differences. The main distinction between these transmissions is that the data
is transferred bit by bit in Serial Transmission. Still, in Parallel Transmission, the
data is sent one byte (8 bits) or character at a time. The main similarity between
these transmissions is that both transmissions are utilized to connect and interact
with other devices. In addition, parallel transmission is time-sensitive, but serial
transmission is not.

What is Serial Transmission?

In Serial transmission, the data is delivered bit by bit from one computer system to
another via bi-directional where each bit has its own clock pulse rate. In Serial
Transmission, 8 bits are transferred at a time, with a start and stop bit (i.e., referred
to as a Parity bit), which are 0 and 1. In this transmission, serial data cables are
utilized to send data across extended distances. In this transmission, the data is
delivered in proper order. It is made out of a 9-pin cable with a D-shaped that links
data in series.
Types of Serial Transmission
There are mainly two types of serial transmission. These are as follows:

1. Asynchronous Serial Transmission

Asynchronous transmission adds an extra bit to every byte to notify the

recipient of the appearance of new data. Typically, the start bit is 0, and the
stop bit is 1.

2. Synchronous Serial transmission

There is no extra bit added in synchronous transmission; rather, data is

conveyed in the form of frames that comprise numerous bytes.

The serial transmission system cannot function without the installation of

hardware at the transmitting and receiving ends. The hardware at the
sending and receiving ends can transfer data from the device's parallel
mode to serial mode.
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Serial Transmission

Advantages

It is very cost-effective.
It can be utilized for long-distance communication.
It is more reliable and stable than other transmissions.

Disadvantages

The transmission rate of data is low.

Its throughput depends on the bit rate.
What is Parallel Transmission?
Parallel Transmission involves the simultaneous transfer of
numerous bits from one computer system to another. It is
quicker to send the bits and is utilized for short distances. It is
also advantageous because it conforms to the underlying
hardware, as electronic equipment such as computers and
communication systems employ parallel circuits inside. The
parallel interface works well in conjunction with the internal
hardware.

The installation and problem resolution are simple because it is

placed in a single physical cable and utilizes a 25-pin port
containing 17 signal lines and 8 ground lines. The 17 single
lines are divided into 4 lines for initiating handshaking, 5 lines
for communicating and notifying errors, and 8 for data
transfer.
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Parallel Transmission

Advantages

It may transmit N bits simultaneously. A parallel interface can perform N times faster than a
serial interface.
The data can be sent from a computer to a printer using the parallel transmission. The printer
is connected to the computer's parallel port, and a parallel cable with numerous wires can
connect the printer to the computer. It is a highly rapid way of data transport.
The data is transmitted significantly more quickly in parallel transmission.
It works well for short-distance communication.
The set of bits is transferred at the same time.

Disadvantages

Multiple communication channels are required in parallel transmission.

N communication lines must be utilized to transfer the data stream, and this n number of
wires must be used.
It is costly, so it is usually confined to small distances.
The wire thickness must be raised to reduce signal loss when transmitting data over long
distances.
 Digital to Analog Modulation
Digital Signal – A digital signal is a signal that represents data as a sequence of discrete
values; at any given time it can only take on one of a finite number of values. Analog
Signal – An analog signal is any continuous signal for which the time varying feature of
the signal is a representation of some other time varying quantity i.e., analogous to another
time varying signal. The following techniques can be used for Digital to Analog
Conversion: 1. Amplitude Shift keying – Amplitude Shift Keying is a technique in which
carrier signal is analog and data to be modulated is digital. The amplitude of analog carrier
signal is modified to reflect binary data. The binary signal when modulated gives a zero
value when the binary data represents 0 while gives the carrier output when data is 1. The
frequency and phase of the carrier signal remain constant.
Advantages of amplitude shift Keying – ∙ It can be used to transmit
digital data over optical fiber. ∙ The receiver and transmitter have a
simple design which also makes it comparatively inexpensive. ∙ It
uses lesser bandwidth as compared to FSK thus it offers high
bandwidth efficiency. Disadvantages of amplitude shift Keying – ∙
It is susceptible to noise interference and entire transmissions could
be lost due to this. ∙ It has lower power efficiency.
Frequency Shift keying – In this modulation the frequency of analog carrier signal is
modified to reflect binary data. The output of a frequency shift keying modulated wave
is high in frequency for a binary high input and is low in frequency for a binary low
input. The amplitude and phase of the carrier signal remain constant.
Advantages of frequency shift Keying – ∙ Frequency shift keying
modulated signal can help avoid the noise problems beset by ASK. ∙
It has lower chances of an error. ∙ It provides high signal to noise
ratio. ∙ The transmitter and receiver implementations are simple for
low data rate application. Disadvantages of frequency shift Keying
– ∙ It uses larger bandwidth as compared to ASK thus it offers less
bandwidth efficiency. ∙ It has lower power efficiency.
Phase Shift keying – In this modulation the phase of the analog carrier signal is
modified to reflect binary data.The amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal
remains constant.
It is further categorized as follows: 1. Binary Phase Shift Keying
(BPSK):BPSK also known as phase reversal keying or 2PSK is
the simplest form of phase shift keying. The Phase of the carrier
wave is changed according to the two binary inputs. In Binary
Phase shift keying, difference of 180 phase shift is used between
binary 1 and binary 0. This is regarded as the most robust digital
modulation technique and is used for long distance wireless
communication.
2. Quadrature phase shift keying:This technique is used to
increase the bit rate i.e we can code two bits onto one single
element. It uses four phases to encode two bits per symbol. QPSK
uses phase shifts of multiples of 90 degrees. It has double data rate
carrying capacity compare to BPSK as two bits are mapped on
each constellation points.
Advantages of phase shift Keying – ∙ It is a more power efficient
modulation technique as compared to ASK and FSK. ∙ It has lower
chances of an error. ∙ It allows data to be carried along a
communication signal much more efficiently as compared to FSK.
Disadvantages of phase shift Keying – ∙ It offers low bandwidth
efficiency. ∙ The detection and recovery algorithms of binary data is
very complex. ∙ It is a non coherent reference signal.
Multiplexing o The transmission medium is used to send the
signal from sender to receiver. The medium can only have one signal at
a time.
o If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then the medium
must be divided in such a way that each signal is given some portion of
the available bandwidth. For example: If there are 10 signals and
bandwidth of medium is100 units, then the 10 unit is shared by each
signal.
o When multiple signals share the common medium, there is a
possibility of collision. Multiplexing concept is used to avoid such
collision.
o Transmission services are very expensive.
History of Multiplexing
oMultiplexing technique is widely used in telecommunications in which several telephone
calls are carried through a single wire.
oMultiplexing originated in telegraphy in the early 1870s and is now widely used in
communication.
oGeorge Owen Squier developed the telephone carrier multiplexing in 1910.

Concept of Multiplexing
oThe 'n' input lines are transmitted through a multiplexer and multiplexer
combines the signals to form a composite signal.
oThe composite signal is passed through a Demultiplexer and demultiplexer
separates a signal to component signals and transfers them to their respective
destinations.
Advantages of Multiplexing: o More than one signal can
be sent over a single medium. o The bandwidth of a medium can be
utilized effectively.

Multiplexing Techniques Multiplexing techniques can

be classified as:
Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM) o It is
an analog technique. o Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technique
in which the available bandwidth of a single transmission medium is
subdivided into several channels.
o In the above diagram, a single transmission medium is subdivided into
several frequency channels, and each frequency channel is given to
different devices. Device 1 has a frequency channel of range from 1 to 5. o
The input signals are translated into frequency bands by using modulation
techniques, and they are combined by a multiplexer to form a composite
signal. o The main aim of the FDM is to subdivide the available
bandwidth into different frequency channels and allocate them to different
devices. o Using the modulation technique, the input signals are
transmitted into frequency bands and then combined to form a composite
signal. o The carriers which are used for modulating the signals are known
as sub-carriers. They are represented as f1,f2..fn.
oFDM is mainly used in radio broadcasts and TV networks.
Advantages Of FDM: o FDM is used for analog signals. o FDM
process is very simple and easy modulation. o A Large number of signals
can be sent through an FDM simultaneously. o It does not require any
synchronization between sender and receiver. Disadvantages Of FDM: o
FDM technique is used only when low-speed channels are required. o It
suffers the problem of crosstalk. o A Large number of modulators are
required. o It requires a high bandwidth channel. Applications Of FDM:
o FDM is commonly used in TV networks. o It is used in FM and AM
broadcasting. Each FM radio station has different frequencies, and they are
multiplexed to form a composite signal. The multiplexed signal is
transmitted in the air.
 Transmission Media
• Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information from the
sender to the receiver. Data is transmitted through the electromagnetic signals.
• The main functionality of the transmission media is to carry the information in the form
of bits through LAN(Local Area Network).
• It is a physical path between transmitter and receiver in data communication.
• In a copper-based network, the bits in the form of electrical signals.
• In a fibre based network, the bits in the form of light pulses.
• In OSI(Open System Interconnection) phase, transmission media supports the Layer
1. Therefore, it is considered to be as a Layer 1 component.
• The electrical signals can be sent through the copper wire, fibre optics, atmosphere,
water, and vacuum.
• The characteristics and quality of data transmission are determined by the
characteristics of medium and signal.
• Transmission media is of two types are wired media and wireless media. In wired
media, medium characteristics are more important whereas, in wireless media, signal
characteristics are more important.
• Different transmission media have different properties such as bandwidth, delay, cost
and ease of installation and maintenance.
• The transmission media is available in the lowest layer of the OSI reference model,
i.e., Physical layer.
Some factors need to be considered for designing the
transmission media: o Bandwidth: All the factors are remaining
constant, the greater the bandwidth of a medium, the higher the data
transmission rate of a signal. o Transmission impairment: When the
received signal is not identical to the transmitted one due to the
transmission impairment. The quality of the signals will get destroyed
due to transmission impairment. o Interference: An interference is
defined as the process of disrupting a signal when it travels over a
communication medium on the addition of some unwanted signal.
 Causes Of Transmission Impairment:

o Attenuation: Attenuation means the loss of energy, i.e., the strength

of the signal decreases with increasing the distance which causes the
loss of energy. o Distortion: Distortion occurs when there is a change
in the shape of the signal. This type of distortion is examined from
different signals having different frequencies. Each frequency
component has its own propagation speed, so they reach at a different
time which leads to the delay distortion. o Noise: When data is
travelled over a transmission medium, some unwanted signal is added
to it which creates the noise.
Classification Of Transmission Media:
Guided Media It is defined as the physical medium through which
the signals are transmitted. It is also known as Bounded media. Types Of Guided
media: Twisted pair: Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair
of cables twisted with each other. A twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to
other transmission media. Installation of the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a
lightweight cable. The frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.
A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral
pattern. The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined by the number
of turns per foot. Increasing the number of turns per foot decreases noise
interference.
Unguided Media An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic
o
waves without using any physical medium. Therefore it is also known as wireless
transmission. o In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic
energy can flow easily. Unguided transmission is broadly classified into three categories:
Radio waves o Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted
in all the directions of free space. o Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals
are propagated in all the directions. o The range in frequencies of radio waves is from
3Khz to 1 khz. o In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not
aligned, i.e., the wave sent by the sending antenna can be received by any receiving
antenna. o An example of the radio wave is FM radio.

Applications Of Radio waves: o A Radio wave is