UNIT – 2, PAPER – 2

INDU
Demographic profile of India - Ethnic and linguistic

A B
elements in the Indian population and their distribution.

HIM
Indian population - factors influencing its structure and
growth.
2. ETHNIC AND LINGUISTIC ELEMENTS IN THE INDIAN POPULATION
AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION.

CLASSIFICATION BY SIR HERBERT HOPE RISLEY (1915):

Sir Herbert Hope Risley tried to classify the Indian population based on

People of India’.
IN U
anthropometric measurements and published the results in 1915 under the title ‘The

D
B
Risley distinguished seven different ‘physical types’ in the Indian population

A
M
1. The Dravidian type:

HI
• Short stature, dark complexion,
• Dark, curly or wavy hair, Dark eyes, long head, broad nose
• Distributed in southern part of India, which especially includes the Western Bengal,
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh (Hyderabad), Central India and Chotonagpur.
E.g., Paniyans of Malabar (South India) and the Santhals of the Chotanagpur.
Risley believed these people as original inhabitants of India who are modified by the
infiltration of the Aryans, the Scythians and the Mongoloids.
2. The Indo-Aryan type:
• Tall stature, fair complexion, dark eyes,
• Longhead (dolichocephalic),
• Narrow and long (leptorrhine) nose.
• The type is confined to Punjab, Rajasthan and Kashmir

DU
• E.g., Kashmiri Brahmins, Rajputs, Jats and the Khatris.

IN
3. The Mongoloid type:

A B
Flat face.
HIM
• Broad-head, dark complexion with yellowish tinge, broad head, short stature,

• Eyes are oblique with epicanthic fold.

• Found along the Himalayan region, especially in the regions namely
Northeast Frontier, Nepal and Burma.
• E.g., Kanets of Lahaul and Kullu Valleys, Lepchas of Darjeeling and Sikkim,
the Limbus, the Murmis and the Gurungs of Nepal and the Bodo of Assam.
4. The Aryo-Dravidian type:
• This type is known as the Hindustani type.
• Long to medium head, Light brown to dark complexion, medium to broad nose.
Shorter than Indo Aryans.
• The type is considered as an intermixture of the Aryans and the Dravidians in
varying proportions.

INDU
• The people of this type are found in Uttar Pradesh, in some parts of Rajasthan
and in Bihar.
A B
HIM
5. The Mongolo-Dravidian type:
• This type is known as the Bengali type.
• Broad and round head, medium nose,
• Medium dark complexion, short to medium stature.
• Such people are found in Bengal and Orissa.
E.g., Bengali Brahmins and Bengali Kayasthas. According to Risley this type is
not only an admixture of the Mongolians, Dravidians & Indo-Aryan.
6. The Scytho-Dravidian type:
• Medium to broad head, Short to medium stature
• Fair complexion, medium nose
• Intermixture of two distinct racial strains—the Scythians and the Dravidians.
(Scythia was a region of Central Eurasia).
• Maratha Brahmins, the Kunbis and the Coorgs, who are distributed in the tracts of

INDU
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra-Gujrat border region upto the Coorg.
• The Scythian element is more prominent in higher castes, while the Dravidian features

A B
predominate among the lower castes in the region.

HIM
7. The Turko-Iranian type:
• Broad head, tall, dark to grey eyes, fair complexion,
• Fine to medium nose, which is long and prominent.
• The type includes the inhabitants of Afghanistan, Baluchistan and Northwest
Frontier Provinces (now in Pakistan) who are represented by the Balochis, Brahui,
Afghans and some other people of NWFP.
• In the view of Risley, this type has been formed probably by the fusion of Turki and
Persian elements in which the former’s features predominate.
 RISLEY'S CLASSIATION
TURKO- INDO-ARYAN SCYTHO- ARYO- MONGOLO- MONGOL DRAVIDIAN
IRANIAN DRAVIDIAN DRAVIDIAN DRAVIDIAN OID
HEAD BROAD LONG BROAD HEAD LONG HEAD BROAD TO LONG LONGHEAD
HEAD HEAD(DOLICHOC MEDIUM HEAD
EPHALIC)

NOSE MEDIUM TO LONG AND MEDIUM MEDIUM TO VARIABLE FINE BROAD NOSE

U
FINE NOSE NARROW NOSE NOSE BROAD NOSE NOSE

ND
(LEPTORRHINE)

STATURE TALL
STATUTRE
TALL

A B I
MEDIUM
HEIGHT
MEDIUM MEDIUM TO
SHORT
SHORT SHORT

IM
COMPLEX FAIR FAIR FAIR- LIGHT MEDIUM TO YELLOW DARK

H
ION COMPLEXIO MODERATE BROWN TO DARK ISH
N DARK
HAIR THICK PLENTY OF HAIR SCANTY VARIABLE PLENTIFUL SCANTY DARK AND
BEARD AND FACIAL HAIR HAIR HAIR PLENTIFUL
PLENTY OF
HAIR
DISTRIBU PEOPLE OF PUNJABI RAJPUT MARATHA UP BENGALI NEPAL TAMIL NADU
TION BALUCHISTA JAAT BRAHMINS BIHAR BRAHMANS AND ASSAM AP
N & NWFP KHATRIS AND COORGS RAJASTHAN KAYASTHAS BURMA CHHOTA-
PEOPLE OF NAGPUR
ORISSA
Criticism:
• The Indo-Aryans are distributed only in Punjab, Rajputana and the Kashmir
Valley according to Risley. But the speakers of Aryan languages actually

U
occupy a vast area in Indian subcontinent.

B I D
• Risley had given much importance in Scythian elements though the Scythian

N
invaders stayed so short that they hardly get any opportunity to spread.

IM A
• He used the names of language families for ethnic elements.
• Risley also had mentioned a vast area of South India as the land of the

H
Dravidians, but in reality, many of these people do not speak Dravidian
language and some of them exhibit such physical features which are quite
different from the proper Dravidian characters.
• Risley did not mention anything about the Negrito element in India.
CONTRIBUTIONS OF H.H. RISLEY TO ARYAN DEBATE:
• As an exponent of race science, he used the ratio of the width of a nose to its height
to divide Indians into 7 racial groups.
• Risley used the ancient Rig Veda text, which he interpreted as speaking of Aryan
invaders coming into India from the northwest and meeting with existing peoples.

U
• He saw a linkage between the nasal index and the definition of a community as

B IND
either a tribe or a Hindu caste and believed that the caste system had its basis in race
rather than in occupation, saying caste as “community of race”, and not, as has

M A
frequently been argued, “community of function”, is the real determining

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H
principle, the true causa causans, of the caste system.
• He found a positive correlation between proportion of Aryan blood and the
nasal index.
• He noted that ‘Caste has a racial basis, and the social position of a caste stands in
inverse ration with the average nasal index of their members”.
• According to Risley, Indo-Aryans were dolicocephalic, leptorrhine and he found
that traditional indo-aryans exist in North India.
Criticism:
B.N. Dutta enumerated the nasal index values. According to Hindu
social order, the serial order of these castes ought to be: Rajputs, Khatri

U
(Higher caste in Punjab like Brahmins and Rajputs), Jats (OBC in some

B IND
states/ considered as degraded kshatriyas), Chuhra (Bhangi / Balmiki /
SC), Mina (ST). If Risley’s hypothesis is true we would find Rajputs as

IM A
having the lowest nasal index (Narrow nose) and Mina to be highest

H
(Broad nose) in the list. But it is not so.

Nasal Index = Nasal Breadth X 100

Nasal length
CLASSIFICATION BY B.S. GUHA (1937):
Dr. B. S. Guha’s racial classification is based on anthropometric measurements,
which were collected during his investigations from 1930 to 1933. He published the
classification in 1935. This is the most widely accepted classification. Guha traced
six major racial strains and nine sub-types among the modem Indian
population.

INDU
1. The Negrito:
A B
India.
HIM
• These people are considered as the first comers and the true autochthones of

• Short stature, dark complexion, and frizzly hair with spirals, brachycephalic head.
• Flat and broad nose, thick everted lips.
• Eg: Kadars, Irulas, Paniyans, etc. of South India, tribes living in the Rajmahal
Hills & tribes in Andaman islands Great Andamanese, Jarawa, Onge, Sentinelese.
2. The Proto-Australoid:
• This group is considered as the second oldest racial group in India.
• Short stature, dark complexion, dolichocephalic head
• Broad and flat nose (platyrrhine nose). Wavy or curly hair
• Supraorbital ridges are prominent.

INDU
• These features are found among almost all the tribes of the Central and Southern
India. The best examples are the Oraons, the Santhals, and the Mundas of

A B
Chottanagpur region; the Chenchus, the Kurumbas, the Gond and the Badagas of

IM
Southern India; and the Bhils, Kols of Central and Western India.

H
(Note: Dravidians are generally classified as proto Australoid)

3. The Mongoloid:
This group can be divided into two sub-groups, such as Palaeo-Mongoloid and the
Tibeto-Mongoloid. The former one is further sub-divided as long headed and
broad-headed.
A. Palaeo- Mongoloid:
• The Longheaded Palaeo-Mongoloid: Long head, medium stature, and medium
nose. Their cheekbones are prominent and skin colour varies from dark to light
brown. The face is short and flat. They are the inhabitants of the sub-Himalayan
region; the concentration is most remarkable in Assam and Burma Frontier. The

U
Sema Nagas of Assam and the Limbus of Nepal are the best examples.

B IND
• The broad- headed Palaeo-Mongoloid: Broad head with round face, dark skin

M A
colour and medium nose. The eyes are obliquely set, and epicanthic fold is more

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H
prominent than that of the long-headed type. This type has been identified among
the hill tribes of Chittagong, e.g., the chakmas, the Maghs, etc.

B. Tibeto-Mongoloids: Broad and massive head, tall stature, long and flat face, and
medium to long nose. The eyes are oblique with marked epicanthic fold. Hair on body
and face is almost absent. The skin colour is light brown. The best examples are the
Tibetans of Bhutan and Sikkim.
4. The Mediterranean:
This group is divided into three distinct racial types, which are as follows:
a) Palaeo-Mediterranean:
Long head with bulbous forehead, medium stature, small and broad nose, narrow face
and pointed chin, dark skin.

U
These people probably introduced megalithic culture to India. The Dravidian speaking

B IND
people of South India exhibit the main concentration of this type. The Tamil
Brahmins of Madurai, Nairs of Cochin, and Telugu Brahmins are the examples.

IM A
H
b) The Mediterranean:
Long head with arched forehead, Narrow nose, medium to tall stature and light skin
colour. Their chin is well developed, hair colour is dark, eye colour is brownish to dark.
These people live in the regions like Uttar Pradesh, Bombay, Bengal, Malabar, etc.
The true types are the Nambudiri Brahmins of Cochin, Brahmins of Allahabad and
Bengali Brahmins. It may be assumed that probably this type was responsible for
the building up of Indus Valley civilization.
c) The Oriental:
These people resemble the Mediterranean in almost all physical features except
the nose, which is long and convex in this case. The best examples are the
Punjabi Chattris (Rajputs), the Bania ( money lenders) , and the Pathans.

5. The Western Brachycephals

INDU
B
This racial group is divided into three types

A
a) The Alpinoid:
HIM
Broad head with rounded occiput, medium stature, prominent nose and rounded
face, fair skin complexion,
This type is found among the Bania of Gujarat, the Kathi of Kathiawar and the
Kayasthas of Bengal,
b) The Dinaric:
• Broad head, rounded occiput and high vault.
• The nose is very long and often convex, long face, very tall stature, dark skins,
dark hair and eyes,
• The representative populations are found in Bengal, Orissa and Coorg. The

INDU
Brahmins of Bengal and Mysore are the best examples.
• The presence of this type has been noted in the Indus Valley site and
Hyderabad.
A B
c) The Armenoid:
HIM
• This type shows a resemblance with the Dinarics in physical characters.
• Only difference is that, among the Dinarics the shape of occiput is much
developed, and the nose is very prominent.
• The Parsis of Bombay exhibit typical Armenoid characteristics.
• The Bengali Vaidyas and Kayasthas sometimes show the features of this type.
6. The Nordics:
• The people are characterized by long head, protruding occiput and arched
forehead.
• The nose is straight and high bridged.

U
• All are tall statured with strong jaw and robust body built.
• The eye colour is blue or grey.

B IND
• The body colour is fair which is reddish white. This element is scattered in

IM A
different parts of Northern India, especially in the Punjab and Rajputana
(Place of Rajputs, present day Rajasthan).

H
• Kho tribe in Chitral district of Pakistan and in Jammu and Kashmir.
• The Nordics came from the north, probably from Southeast Russia and
Southwest Siberia, thereafter, penetrated India through Central Asia.
Criticism of Guha’s Classification:
• Guha’s classification also faced criticism at some points.
• Guha’s findings regarding the Negrito element have been opposed by
almost all-leading anthropologists.

INDU
• Guha tried to prove that all racial elements in India are of foreign
origin. Keith strongly opposed this view. Because Keith believed in a

A B
racial evolution that has taken place in India and so he took India an

HIM
evolutionary field of different races.
• Further, Guha had shown the people of India as Mongoloid and
Brachycephalic. He proposed a sweeping distribution of Brachycephals.
Dr. Sarkar has strongly opposed the proposition of Guha. In his
opinion the brachycephalic population of India does not show a sweeping
distribution as has been described by Guha.
CLASSIFICATION OF S.S. SARKAR (1961):
Dr. S.S. Sarkar proposed a racial classification based on cephalic index. He suggested
six ethnic elements as the main types in the population of India. According to him,
India is predominantly a dolichocephalic country, followed by the racial types like
mesocephals and brachycephals.
1. The Dolichocephals:

INDU
a. Australoid:

A B
M
The aboriginal people of India. Certain tribes of South India, e.g. the Uralis, the

HI
Kannikars, Paniyan and other show Australoid features.
Sarkar had mentioned that the Australoids are widely distributed throughout India.
The features are present among all castes of India although a greatest concentration is
found among the lower castes. However, the population is characterized by short
stature with dark complexion. Their head is dolichocephalic, the nose is platyrrhine
and the hair is wavy.
b. Indo-Aryan:
• Their physical features denote tall stature and light skin colour. The eye colour is
also light, Hair colour is not so dark as the Australoids. The cranial capacity is higher
than the Australoids. Their physique is well built and robust than the Australoids.
The best example of Indo- Aryan type is the Baltis of the Hindukush Mountains.

DU
• The Indo-Aryan people have frequently met with the people of Indus and the

IN
B
Gangetic Valley of Western India. Therefore, many features of this type predominate
in the said region.

IM A
c. Mundari-Speakers:
H
• Sturdy, short height, dolichocephalic head, a skin colour lighter than the Australoids.
The thick, straight, black hair.
• They are distributed in the Eastern and Central India. Chottanagpur plateau, Orissa,
and Madhya Pradesh show the highest concentration. They have been migrated from
the east and bear some affinities with the Mongoloids.
2. The Mesocephals:
a. Irano-Scythian:
Entered in India from Northwest, almost at the same time during the Indo-Aryan
migration. The physical features are characterized by the mesocephalic head and
medium stature. The average cephalic index of Indo-Aryans is 73 while among the

U
Irano-Scythian it ranges between 77 and 79.

IND
After entering India these people possibly moved southward along the valley of the

B
Indus and reached to Gujarat, Bombay and Maharashtra. Their distribution has been

IM A
noted up to Northern Mysore, Deccan and further south.
3. The Brachyecephals:
a. Far Eastern: H
There is no disagreement that the brachycephalic element came from Central Asia to
India during Prehistoric period. Observed in the coastal regions of Chittagong hill tracts.
Dr. Sarkar had defined it in terms of brachycephalic head, short stature, tendency
towards obesity and dark skin colour.
b. Mongolian:
This type of people is found in the Northeastern borders of India and the
foothills of the Himalayas. The physical characteristics show a predomination of

IN U
Mongoloid features. The skin colour is yellowish, akin to Mongoloid skin

D
colour. The hair is sparsely distributed on face and body. The eyes invariably
present the epicanthic fold.

A B
HIM
Our present knowledge instigates us to conclude that the earliest inhabitants of
India were the Australoids who might have received some infiltration of Negrito
strains in certain parts of India. More researches are still required to be carried
out to solve the problem of racial classification in India.
THE PYGMOID-NEGRITO PROBLEM IN INDIA:
One of the most complicated problems in Indian ethnology is the controversy about the
presence of Pygmoid (Oceanic and Asiatic pigmies) / Negrito elements within the Indian
population.
Characters:

N U
• Dark complexion, frizzly hair with spirals.

D
• Flat and broad nose, thick everted lips, brachycephalic head.

I
B
• Very short stature, the term pygmoid is used when the stature in the males is around

A
M
1500mm. Little or no brow ridges and short broad face.

HI
Distribution: The pygmy population is found only in Congo, but the pygmoids are
found in many parts of the world like Malay peninsula, Melanesia, Polynesia, Australia,
New Guinea, India etc. Problem arises when different tribes show only one or two
characters of pygmoids.
In India, Onges of Andaman island are definite pygmoid. The important tribes like
Kadars of Coimbatore, Paniyan of Wayanad, Kurumbas and Irulas of Nilgiri Hills
are closely related to Pygmoids.
• It is possible that they had a wide distribution in prehistoric time in India and
extended towards North and East, probably occupying whole of the Asian land
mass.
• As we trace the history of Negrito racial strain in India, we find that it was DE
QUATREFAGES who used the word “Negrito” in the context of Indian population

DU
for the first time in the year 1877. He assumed the Negrito as an indigenous

IN
B
element in India.

A
• J. H. Hutton has also given attention to the Negrito problem of India. He has

HIM
referred to the presence of woolly and frizzy hair among the Angami Nagas of
Manipur and Cachar hills. He has suggested that the Negrito people may be
responsible for the introduction of cults like the disposal of the dead by exposure
and the separation of the skull, head hunting, etc. in India. But different authorities
on Indian ethnography do not accept such hypothesis. According to Sarkar, the
distribution of these types of cultural traits in India is limited.
• Majumdar is also of the opinion that the exposure of the dead, cult need not
necessarily be Melanesian in origin.
• B.S. Guha has traced the Negrito element among the Kadars based on the presence
of woolly or frizzly hair, but Sarkar opposed this stating that a single trait is not
sufficient to categorize them as Negrito.

U
GENETIC STUDY OF THE NEGRITO ELEMENTS:

B IND
• The abnormal Hemoglobin HB-S (hemoglobin polymorphism due to sickle cell trait)
is widespread in black African population and in many parts of India. The gene may

IM A
have arisen in Saudi Arabia and spread into Africa and India subsequently. However,

H
HB-S appears to be relatively infrequent among the Kadars.
• A specific black Africans allele, such as the P-2 allele in the acid phosphatase
system, is not present in the Kadars & not in any other Indian population so far
tested. Its absence does not rule out possible African admixture in the Kadars, but its
presence would have made the argument for such admixture more convincing.
• The incidence of B blood group is high among Negritos but low among the Indian
tribes claimed to be Negrito.
ARYAN MIGRATION GENETICS
• Mitochondrial DNA (transmitted only from mother to children) suggested that there
was little external infusion into the Indian gene pool over the last 12,500 years or so.
New Y-DNA data has disproved it.
• Peter Underhill, published a massive study mapping the distribution of R1a, a

DU
haplogroup on Y chromosome , which is today spread across Central Asia, Europe

IN
B
and South Asia. Pontic-Caspian Steppe is seen as its region of origin.

IM A
• He found that R1a had two sub-haplogroups, one found primarily in Europe (Z

H
282) and the other confined to Central and South Asia (Z93).
• The two groups diverged from each other only about 5,800 years ago.
• Within the Z93 that is predominant in India, there is a further splintering into
multiple “star-like branching” indicative of rapid growth and dispersal.
• The study of David Poznik & Dr. Underhill found that “the most striking
expansions within Z93 occured approximately 4,000 years ago”. This is when
roughly 4,000 years ago the Indus Valley civilization began falling apart.
 R1A Haplogroup on Y chromosome
originated in Pontic Caspian Steppe

5800 years ago

Z282
INDU
Z93
(In Europe)
A B In Asia, particularly India)

HIM 4000 YA

This is when roughly 4,000 years ago the IVC began falling apart.
7/9/19 news: ( Published in the journal “Cell”)
• Study published in the journal, “Cell” co authored by 28 scientists including
some co authors of the study published in “Science”, such as Thangaraj, Reich.
Narasimhan, and Rai with Shinde being the lead author, the title of the study

INDU
seemed straightforward, “ An ancient Harappan genome lacks ancestry from
steppe pastoralists or Iranian farmers”.

A B
• The study concluded that 4600 years old female genome derived from a

HIM
Harappan site in Rakhigarhi and DNA from 61 skeletal samples from
Rakhigarhi cemetery had no Steppe pastoralists ancestry.
• This made some journalists jump to the conclusions that it meant there was no
Aryan migration either. However, this could also mean that the migration
occurred later. Aryan migration from Steppe was claimed to happen around 4000
years ago. And the skeleton in Rakhigarhi is dated 4600 years old.
 14/9/19 News: ( Published in the journal “Science”):
• An International team of scientists analyzed the genomes of 524 ancient Indians and
compared them with the people who live there today.
• Out of the 140 present day south Asian populations analyzed in the study, a handful

DU
has a remarkable similarity with the Steppe people, and all but one of these steppe

IN
B
enriched populations are priestly groups / Brahmins.

M A
According to Tony Joseph, author of “Early Indians: The story of our ancestors

I
H
and where we came from” said that "It means West Asians migrants (From Iran) ,
mixed with the First Indians formed the population that spread agriculture in north-
west India and built the Harappan civilization. And Steppe pastoralists who brought
Indo-Aryan languages to India were not present in the region then”.
Author and Historian DN Jha stated that “ Anyone questioning the Aryan migration
theory is clearly ignorant of historical processes”
 INDU
A B
HIM
 INDU
A B
HIM
LINGUISTIC ELEMENTS IN INDIA
The languages spoken in India belong to four distinct types
as under:

NDU
• Austro-Asiatic family (Nishada)
I
A B
• Tibeto-Chinese family (Kirata)

HIM
• Dravidian family (Dravida)
• Indo-European family (Aryan)
 INDU
A B
HIM
 INDU
A B
HIM
• More than 200 languages are spoken in India
• Half of them are spoken by less than 10,000 people
• 23 languages constitute 97% of total population
• 22 languages are listed in 8th schedule

Disadvantages of linguistic diversity:

• Regionalism, Secessionism
INDU
A B
• Conflicts on linguistic basis. Creating oneness among the people belonging to

HIM
different languages is difficult.
• Giving more importance to linguistic identity than national identity is harmful to
national unity.
Advantages of linguistic diversity:
The unique feature and identity of India is its Unity in diversity. Linguistic diversity,
and the people of each language having unique culture contributes to the multi
cultural natural of India.
The Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India lists the official languages of the
Republic of India.
The Government of India is now under an obligation to take measures for the
development of these languages, such that "they grow rapidly in richness and

U
become effective means of communicating modern knowledge. In addition, a

B IND
candidate appearing in an examination conducted for public service is entitled to
use any of these languages as the medium in which he or she answers the paper.

IM A
H
As per Articles 344(1) and 351 of the Indian Constitution, the eighth schedule
includes the recognition of the following 22 languages: Assamese, Bengali, Bodo,
Dogri, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Maithili, Malayalam,
Manipuri, Marathi, Nepali, Odia, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Santali, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu,
Urdu.
 DU
DEMOGRAHIC PROFILE
IN
B
OF INDIA
A
HIM
• The term ‘demography’ is of Greek origin and is composed of the two words,
‘demos’ (people) and ‘graphein’ (describe), implying the description of people.
Hence demography is the science of the systematic study of population.
• Formal demography Its focus is on quantitative aspects like population growth
and changes in the composition of population.

DU
• Population studies or social demography, on the other hand, enquires into the

IN
B
wider causes and consequences of population structures and change. Like

trends.
IM A
sociologists, they seek to trace the social reasons that account for population

H
• Population Distribution: Refers to the manner in which people are spaced over
the earth’s surface.
• Population density: Refers to the number of people living in unit of area (such
as a square mile).
• India has a total population of 121 crores (or 1.21 billion) according to Census,
2011.
• India’s population currently stands at 1.38 billion (2021 estimation), which
accounts for approx. 17.7% of the world’s population.
• These 1.38 billion people are unevenly distributed over our country’s vast area of
3.28 million square km, which accounts for 2.4 per cent of the world’s area. India's

U
population density therefore stands at 464 persons per square km.

square km.
B I D
• The Eastern region had the highest density of population of 625 persons per

N
IM
• Central Indian region density 417.A
• North East had the lowest density at 176 persons per sq km.

• Western region 344 H

• The southern Region had a population density of 397

• Northern Region, 267.

• In terms of increase, the population densities of the regions of Central India,
Northern India and Eastern India grew at a higher pace than the Western, North
Eastern and Southern region.
Population India's 2020 population is estimated at 1,380,004,385 people at mid-year
according to UN data.
Age structure 0-14 years: 27.34% (male 186,087,665/female 164,398,204)
15-24 years: 17.9% (male 121,879,786/female 107,583,437)
25-54 years: 41.08% (male 271,744,709/female 254,834,569)
55-64 years: 7.45% (male 47,846,122/female 47,632,532)

DU
65 years and over: 6.24% (male 37,837,801/female 42,091,086).

IN
B
Median age total: 27.9 years

A
male: 27.2 years

IM
female: 28.6 years .
Population growth
rate
Birth rate
H
0.81% increase from 2022 .

There are 24.02 million births in India in 2021. That is 65,797 per day . The birth
rate is 17.23 per 1000 people. - World population prospects 2019 .
Death rate There are 10.23 million deaths in India in 2021. That is 28,018 per day, which. The
death rate is 7.34 per 1000 people. - World population prospects 2019 .
Net migration rate The current net migration rate for India in 2023 is -0.329 per 1000 population,
a 3.8% decline from 2022.
The net migration rate for India in 2022 was -0.342 per 1000 population, a
3.93% decline from 2021.

U
Urbanization urban population: Urban population (% of total population) in India was reported

B IND
at 35.39 % in 2021. - (World Bank )
Rate of urbanization: India had an urbanization rate of 1.34% in 2021. The

A
urbanization rate in India increased by 1.5% on a year-on-year basis in 2021.

IM
The urbanization rate in India was highest in the year 2021 and lowest in the years

H
2010 and 2011, between 2010 and 2021.
Major cities - NEW DELHI (capital) The current estimated population of Delhi city in 2023 is
population 15,217,000 .
Mumbai city is 17,159,000 , Calcutta is 15,333,000, Bangalore city is 11,644,000
; of Chennai city is 6,407,000; of Hyderabad city is 9,283,000. [ The current
estimates of these cities are based on past growth rate trends as per 2011 census ]
Sex ratio at birth: 1.12 male(s)/female
0-14 years: 1.13 male(s)/female
15-24 years: 1.13 male(s)/female
25-54 years: 1.06 male(s)/female
55-64 years: 1.01 male(s)/female

U
65 years and over: 0.9 male(s)/female

D
total population: 1.08 male(s)/female .

Infant mortality rate

B IN
As per the Sample Registration System (SRS) Bulletin of Registrar General of

IM A
India (RGI), the Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) has reduced from 37 per 1000 live
births in 2015 to 30 per 1,000 live births in 2019 at National Level.

Life expectancy H
The current life expectancy for India in 2023 is 70.42 years, a 0.33% increase
from 2022.
total population: 68.8 years
male: 69.8 years
female: 74.9 years for women
Total fertility ● The current fertility rate for India in 2023 is 2.139 births per
woman, a 0.93% decline from 2022.
● The fertility rate for India in 2022 was 2.159 births per
woman, a 0.92% decline from 2021.
Contraceptive prevalence rate The percentage of women in the reproductive age or their partners
using a contraceptive method has increased substantially from 54%

INDU
to 67% in the country during 2019-21, according to the National
Family Health Survey (NFHS-5) by MOHUA .

A B
IM
Drinking water Improved :

H
urban: 96.9% of population
rural: 94.7% of population
total: 95.5% of population
unimproved:
urban: 3.1% of population
rural: 5.3% of population
total: 4.5% of population (2020 est.)
Sanitation facility access In 2015,
● 44% had access to basic sanitation,
● 65% in urban areas and
● 34% in rural areas.
● In 2017, at least basic sanitation increased to 59.5%.

U
● Between 2014 and 2019, the Government in India claims to

D
have built around 110 million toilets, all across India, due to

IN
which the basic sanitation coverage went up from 38.7% in

B
October 2014 to 93.3% in 2019.
Major infectious diseases

IM A
food or waterborne diseases: Diarrhoea , hepatitis A and E, and

H typhoid fever ( enteric fever) , cholera .

vector borne diseases: dengue fever, Japanese encephalitis, malaria
& Covid19
water contact disease: leptospirosis
animal contact disease: rabies.
Nationality Indian(s)
Sanitation facility access In 2015,
● 44% had access to basic sanitation,
● 65% in urban areas and
● 34% in rural areas.
● In 2017, at least basic sanitation increased to 59.5%.

U
● Between 2014 and 2019, the Government in India claims to

B I D
have built around 110 million toilets, all across India, due to

N
which the basic sanitation coverage went up from 38.7% in

A
October 2014 to 93.3% in 2019.
Major infectious diseases

HIM food or waterborne diseases: Diarrhoea , hepatitis A and E, and

typhoid fever ( enteric fever) , cholera .
vector borne diseases: dengue fever, Japanese encephalitis, malaria
& Covid19
water contact disease: leptospirosis
animal contact disease: rabies.
Nationality Indian(s)
Ethnic groups Indo-Aryan 72%, Dravidian 25%, Mongoloid and
other 3%
Religions Hinduism is the most common religion in India,
accounting for about 80% of the population. Islam is the

N U
second-largest religion at 13% of the population. Other

D
major religious groups in India are Christians (2.3%),

I
B
Sikhs (1.9%), Buddhists (0.8%) and Jains (0.4%). People

A
who claimed no religion are officially recorded under

HIM
Languages [ as per percentage
'other' by the census. In 2011, 0.9% of Indians selected the
'No Religion' category.
Hindi 43.63 % , Bengali 8.03 %, Telugu 6.70 % , Marathi
of total population] 6.86%, Tamil 5.70%, Urdu 4.19%, Gujarati 4.58%,
Kannada 3.61%, Malayalam 3.2%, Odia 3.10%, Punjabi
2.74%, Assamese 1.26%, Maithili 1.2%, others 5.2 %
Literacy definition: defined in Census operations, is the
ability to read and write with understanding in any
language or The percentage of adults over the age of

INDU
fifteen who are literate is known as the literacy rate.
total literacy rate : 77.70 % [ As per NFHS -5 and

B
NSO 2021 and 2022]

IM A
male: 84.70 %
female: 70.30 %

H
Maternal mortality rate
Children under the age of 5
years underweight
97 / lakh live births by 2020 - (MWCD)
35.5 % as per NFHS -5
INDIAN POPULATION - FACTORS
INFLUENCING ITS STRUCTURE
AND GROWTH
India’s population increased rapidly in
the post-independence period. Since
INDU
1951, it has been taking place after

A B
IM
every decade.

H
2022 139.00 18 .00

Size and growth of India’s population

till 2011 are indicated in the following
table:
Period of population Explosion (1951-1981):
In this period the population increased at a very high rate. This period is called the
period of population explosion.
1951-1961: In this period growth rate was recorded to be 21.6 per cent.
1961-1971: This period witnessed an increase in population by 10 crore 90 lakh.
Growth rate was 24.8 per cent.

NDU
1971-1981: During this period the population in India rose to 68 crore 33 lakh. Thus,

I
B
13 crore 51 lakh persons were added to the total size of India’s population.

A
HIM
Period of High Growth but with signs of slowing down:
• In this period, birth rate has started slowing down. But because of fall in death
rate, population growth rate has not shown much decline.
i. 1981 to 1991: In this period, population went upto’84 crore 63 lakh making
addition of 16 crore in 10 years.
ii. 1991 to 2001: In 2001, the population went up to 102.90 crore. Thus, between the
period 1991-2001, the population of India increased by about 18.07 crore.
2001-2011: In this period India’s population has crossed 1.21 billion (as per Census of
2011).
• India is the second country in the world after China to cross the one billion mark.
(India is the 2nd most populated country in the world).
REASONS FOR INCREASE IN POPULATION:
(1) BIRTHRATE RELATED REASONS:

INDU
• Poverty: As explained by many demographic theories, poor people tend to have

B
more fertility due to lack of availability or awareness of conception control. and

A
M
poverty in India is one reason for higher birth rate.
• Cultural beliefs:
HI
• A lot of families prefer having a son rather than a daughter. As a result, a lot of
families have more children than they actually want or can afford, resulting in
increased poverty, lack of resources, and most importantly, an increased population.
• Another one of India’s’ cultural norms is for a girl to get married at an early-age.
In most of the rural areas and in some urban areas as well, families prefer to get
their girls married at the age of 14 or 15.
• Due to the young age of these girls, they start bearing children at a very early-age,
they can have more children throughout their lifetime. Since these girls get married
at a very early-age, they do not have the opportunity to get educated, Therefore,
they remain uneducated and teach the same norms to their own children, and the
tradition goes on from one generation to the other.

INDU
• Religious beliefs: Sun must perform last rites for a man to achieve salvation.
• Abortion is not allowed by several religions that are followed in India. In Islam,

A B
one of the leading religions of India, children are considered to be gifts of God,

IM
and so the more children a woman has, the more she is respected in her family and
society.
H
(2) DEATH RATE RELATED REASONS:
• Improvements in medical facilities have been tremendous. This development is
good for the economy and society of India, but strictly in terms of population, this
advancement has further enhanced the increase in population.
The average life expectancy of people in India has increased from 52.9 in 1975-30 to
62.4 in 1995-00. Although our near and dear ones would live longer, due to the
increase in the population; the resources available per person would be much less,
leading to a decrease in the curvature of the slope of development instead of a higher
gradient.
MIGRATION RELATED REASONS:

INDU
In countries like the United States (US), immigration plays an important role in the

A B
population increase. However, in countries like India, immigration plays a very small

HIM
role in the population change. Although people from neighbouring countries like
Bangladesh, Pakistan and Nepal migrate to India; at the same time Indians migrate to
other countries like the US, Australia, and the UK. This makes the net migration
negligible. This is definitely good for India. This way, the population might
eventually come close to being under control and more people may get better job
opportunities and further education.
SEX RATIO TRENDS IN INDIA
● Sex ratio is used to describe the number of females per 1000 of males. The sex ratio
in India 2011 is 940 females per 1000 of males, shows an upward trend from the
census 2001 data, 933 females to that of 1000 males.
● Since decades India has seen a decrease in the sex ratio, but since the last two of the

INDU
decades there has been in slight increase in the sex ratio.
● The major cause of the decrease of the female birth ratio in India is considered to be

A B
the female foeticide and infanticide.

HIM
● The Sex Ratio in India was almost normal during the phase of the years of
independence, but thereafter it started showing gradual signs of decrease.
● There are some states where the sex ratio is low and is a cause of concern for the
NGO organizations.
● There are also states such as Puducherry and Kerala where the number of women
is more than the number of men. Kerala houses a number of 1084 females to that of
1000 males.
• Chandigarh, Delhi, Haryana
are the states (UT) with very
low sex ratio.
● While Puducherry and
Kerala are the only two states
where the number of females is
INDU
more than the number of males.

A B
IM
● There are also states in India

H
like that of Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh and Maharashtra
where the sex ratio 2011 is
showing considerable signs of
improvement.
• According to the recently released Economic Survey, India
has more females as compared to males. The number of
females per 1,000 males has increased from 991 in 2015-16 to

INDU
1,020 in 2019-21. The sex ratio at birth has also increased
from 919 in 2015-16 to 929 in 2019-21.

A B
• The total fertility rate (TFR), which is the average number of

HIM
children per woman, has also come down to 2 in 2019-21
from 2.2 in 2015-16, according to the survey. In all the states
and UTs except for Manipur, Meghalaya, Bihar, Jharkhand
and Uttar Pradesh, the replacement level of fertility has been
achieved.
NATIONAL POPULATION POLICY
The national population policy 2000 envisages population stabilization in India.
Objectives of national population policy:
The short term objective of the policy is to fill the gaps in availability, awareness
and preparedness for contraception.

replacement levels by 2010.

IN U
The medium-term objective of the policy is to bring the Total fertility rate(TFR) to

D
B
The long-term objective is to achieve a stable population by 2045 at a level

A
M
consistent with the requirements of sustainable economic growth, social

HI
development and environmental protection.
THE STEPS TAKEN BY THE GOVERNMENT UNDER VARIOUS
MEASURES/PROGRAMMES:
❖ Scheme for Home delivery of contraceptives by Accredited social health
activists (ASHAs) at doorstep of beneficiaries
❖ Compensation for sterilisation acceptors has been enhanced for 11 High Focus
States with high TFR.
❖ Scheme for provision of pregnancy testing kits at the sub-centres as well as in the
drug kit of the ASHAs for early detection and decision making for the outcome of
pregnancy.
❖ Celebration of World Population Day 11th July & a fortnight of mobilization followed
by a fortnight of family planning service delivery starting from 27th June each year.
❖ Mission parivar vikas: To increase access to contraceptives and family planning

IND
services in the high fertility districts.
U
❖ Prerna Strategy:- "Jansankhya Sthirata Kosh", JSK (National Population

A B
Stabilisation Fund) has launched this strategy for helping to push up the age of

children.
HIM
marriage of girls and delay in first child and spacing in second child the birth of

❖ Santushti Strategy:- Under this strategy, Jansankhya Sthirata Kosh, invites private
sector gynaecologists and vasectomy surgeons to conduct sterilization operations in
Public Private Partnership mode..
❖ National Helpline: - JSK also running a call center for providing free advice on
reproductive health, family planning, maternal health and child health etc.
 Success achieved:
● The Total Fertility Rate (TFR) : The fertility rate for India in 2022 was 2.159
births per woman, a 0.92% decline from 2021. The fertility rate for India in 2021
was 2.179 births per woman, a 0.95% decline from 2020. In some states, the
number is even lower based on the data from the Sample registration system

U
statistical report, 2018 (provides annual estimates of population composition,
fertility, mortality etc)

B IND
● 25 out of 37 States/UTs have already achieved replacement level fertility of 2.1

IM A
or less. (World average replacement level fertility is 2.1)

H
● The Decadal growth rate has declined from 21.54% in 1999-2000 to 17.64%
during 2001-11.
● The Crude Birth Rate (CBR) (Number of births X 1000/ Estimated
population at mid year) The current birth rate for India in 2023 is 16.949 births
per 1000 people, a 1.25% decline from 2022. The birth rate for India in 2022 was
17.163 births per 1000 people, a 1.23% decline from 2021.(SRS).
● The Teenage birth rate has halved from 16 % to 8 %.
 Recent developments:
• The Population Control Bill, 2019 (or, Population Regulation Bill, 2019) is a
proposed bill introduced in the Rajya Sabha in July 2019. The purpose of the
bill is to control the population growth of India.

U
• Inspired by this bill, On 7 February 2020, the Constitution (Amendment) Bill,

B IND
2020 was introduced in the Rajya Sabha by Anil Desai, a Shiv Sena MP. Desai
proposed to amend the Article 47A ( Add 47A to 47) of the Constitution of
India, Which reads

IM A
H
• The State shall promote small family norms by offering incentives in taxes,
employment, education etc. to its people who keep their family limited to two
children and shall withdraw every concession from and deprive such incentives
to those not adhering to small family norm, to keep the growing population
under control.
• The 2020 bill proposes to introduce a two-child policy per couple and aims to
incentivize its adoption through various measures such as educational benefits,
taxation cuts, home loans, free healthcare, and better employment opportunities.
The 2019 bill talks about introducing penalties for couples not adhering to the two-
child policy such as debarment from contesting in elections and ineligibility for
government jobs.

DU
• Similar one, Uttar Pradesh Population (Control, stabilisation and welfare) Bill

IN
B
2021.
POPULATION GROWTH

IM A
• Growth of Population: The increase in population in a particular area between

H
two points of time is known as growth of population. For example, if we deduct the
population of India in 1991 (84.63 crore) from the population in 2001 (102.70
crore), we shall get the growth of population (18.07 crores) in absolute terms.
• Growth Rate of Population: It is the percentage change in population between
two points of time. For example, India’s current population growth rate is around
0.81% increase from 2022.
 Determinants of Population growth
1. Fertility
• The fertility rate refers to the number of live births per 1000 women in the child-
bearing age group, usually taken to be 15 to 49 years.
“Replacement level fertility” The average number of children born per woman—

INDU
at which a population exactly replaces itself from one generation to the next,
without migration. This rate is roughly 2.1 children per woman for most countries.

B
Total Fertility Rate: It refers to the total number of live births that a woman would

A
IM
have if she lived through the reproductive age group and had the average number of

H
babies in each segment of this age group as determined by the age-specific fertility
rates for that area.
• It is necessary here to differentiate between the terms, ‘fecundity’ and ‘fertility’.
Fecundity refers to the physiological capacity to reproduce.
Fertility, on the other hand, refers to the actual reproductive performance of an
individual or a group.
 Reasons for high fertility: Discussed in birth related variables of
population growth.
Implications of High Fertility:
•
DU
Women are tied down to child-bearing and child-rearing for the best

IN
B
years of their productive lives.
•
•
IM A
Excessive child-bearing affects their health and that of their children.
The burden of providing for a large family increases.
•
H
The children in large families often have to start working at a very
early age. Hence, they are denied the opportunity to go to school and
get educated.
• The girl child is the worst sufferer in these circumstances.
 2. Mortality
Measurement of Mortality, Crude Death Rate: It is the ratio of the total registered
deaths occurring in a specified calendar year to the total mid-year population of that year,
multiplied by 1000.
Expectation of Life at Birth:
● The current life expectancy for India in 2023 is 70.42 years, a 0.33% increase from 2022.
●
DU
By 2050, it is projected to increase to 76 years. As a result, India’s population will rise from

IN
1.3 billion today to an estimated 1.7 billion by 2050, with a much larger elderly share of
around 340 million.
A B
●
IM
Between 2011 and 2050, the number of oldest old people of age 75 and above is expected
to increase by 340%.
H
Infant Mortality Rate:
● Infants are defined in demography as all those children in the first year of life. In countries
like India, where health conditions are poor, infant deaths account for a substantial number
of all deaths. The infant mortality rate is, therefore, often used as an indicator for
determining the socio-economic status of a country and the quality of life in it.
● India's infant mortality rate (IMR) has improved very marginally from 33 per 1,000
live births in 2017 to 32 in 2018, according to data released by the Registrar General
of India.
● United Nations recently set the Sustainable Development Goals and Targets. The
target for India is to attain an Under 5 Mortality Rate of 25/1000 live births by 2030.

NDU
The reasons why the IMR remains high are:

I
•
B
Socio-economic factors: The limitations of poverty, caste, low educational status

A
M
and poor literacy make it difficult for millions to access Healthcare.
•
HI
Early marriages: Around 45% girls in the age group 20-24 are married before the
legal age of 18, and 20% have already given birth at 18. Children born to minors are
susceptible to malnutrition.
• Skewed healthcare access: The private sector hospitals in India mainly cater to the
urban rich while the rural poor have no option but to visit local health centers. Many
local health centre’s do not have the necessary infrastructure.
• Lack of Immunization
• Political factors: India hardly spends 1.5% of its GDP on Healthcare.
According to UNICEF, 50% of all deaths below five can be prevented by
providing skilled health care at birth and quality postnatal care for the mother
and baby.

U
• Maternal Mortality Rate: The maternal mortality ratio represents the risk

B IND
associated with each pregnancy, Maternal death is the death of a woman while
pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy. It is measured as

M A
number of maternal deaths per 100000 live births.

I
3. Migration
H
• Immigration: Migrants who move into a new place are called Immigrants.
• Emigration: Migrants who move out of a place are called Emigrants.
• Push factors:- The place of origin may seem less attractive for reasons like
unemployment, poor living conditions, political turmoil, unpleasant climate,
natural disasters, epidemics and socio-economic backwardness.
• Pull factors:- The place of destination may seem more
attractive than the place of origin for reasons like better job
opportunities and living conditions, peace and stability,

INDU
security of life and property and pleasant climate.
• Migration can be internal (within the country) or

A B
international (between the countries). Internal migration

HIM
does not change the size of the population but influences the
distribution of population within the nation. Thus, migration
plays a very significant role in changing the composition and
distribution of population.
Trends in Growth of Indian Population:
● The growth of Indian population has been witnessing a decreasing trend.
● Percentage decadal growth during 2001-11 has registered the sharpest decline
since Independence. It declined from 23.87% for 1981-1991 to 21.54% for the
period 1991-2001, a decrease of 2.33 percentage points. For 2001-2011, this

INDU
decadal growth became 17.70 %, a further decrease of 3.90 percentage points.
● Similarly, the average exponential growth rate for 2001-2011 declined to 1.64%

A B
per annum from 1.97% per annum during 1991-2001. The average annual

HIM
exponential growth rate during 1981-1991 was 2.16.
Problems of Over-population
• Rapid population growth: Large populations increase rapidly especially in the
absence of family planning practices.
• Unemployment
• Poor standards of living
 Slow growth of industry: The labour force though large in number is
unskilled and has no background of industrial employment. Similarly, though
a large population should provide a good market for the finished goods, the
majority of people are poor and cannot afford to buy the products.

DEMOGRAPHIC DIVIDEND:

INDU
● First Demographic dividend: occurs when the proportion of working people

A B
in the total population is higher than the dependent population (age groups 0-15

HIM
years and 60 years and above) because this indicates that more people have the
potential to be productive and contribute to growth of the economy.
● However, this benefit is temporary because the larger pool of working age
people will eventually turn into non-working old people. India is in this stage
of demographic dividend, where more than 63% of the population is in the age
group of 15-59 years.
● At the National level, the age group 15-59 contributes 63.2 percent in rural areas
and 67.9 percent population in urban areas. In rural areas the percentage varies
from 57.9 in Bihar to 69.3 in Telangana. In urban areas the same varies from 61.7
in Bihar to 71.3 percent in Andhra Pradesh.
● But this potential can be converted into actual growth only if the rise in the

INDU
working age group is accompanied by increasing levels of education and
employment. Thus, changing age structure by itself cannot guarantee any benefits

A B
unless it is properly utilised through planned development.

HIM
● Declining female labour force participation: According to data from the
International Labour Organization and World Bank, India’s female labor force
participation rates have fallen from 34.8% in 1990 to 27% in 2013. Without
women’s participation, India can’t dream of reaping the demographic dividends.
[ Current trend : all-India female labour force participation rate (LFPR) has increased
2.3% in 2021 to 25.1% as compared to 22.8% a year ago, shows the Periodic Labour
Force Survey (PLFS) annual report for July 2020-June 2021 released on Tuesday.]
● According to the United National population research, during the last four
decades the countries of Asia and Latin America have been the main
beneficiaries of the demographic dividend. Advanced countries of Europe,
Japan and USA have an ageing population because of low birth rates and low
mortality rates.

INDU
● Less developed countries have not yet experienced favourable demographic
conditions.
A B
HIM
● China’s one child policy has reversed the demographic dividend it enjoyed
since the mid1960s according to a World Bank global development report.
● Second demographic dividend: It results from an increase in adult longevity,
which causes individuals to save more in preparation for old age. This increase
in savings can thus contribute to capital accumulation and economic growth.
 Patterns of population growth:
● Neutral growth of population: The difference between birth rate and death rate.
When this difference is zero (very small), we say that the population is stabilised or
reached the replacement level (Rate of growth required for the new generation to
replace the older one)

IN U
● Positive growth happens when birth rate is more than death rate.

D
● Negative growth happens when death rate is more than the birth rate.

B
● The population pyramid (The age-sex pyramid): A population pyramid is a graph

A
M
that shows the distribution of ages across a population divided down the center

HI
between male and female members of the population. The graphic starts from
youngest at the bottom to oldest at the top.
● Expanding Population (Expansive pyramid): Triangular shaped (More population
in younger age and less population in older age), typical of less developed countries
due to high birth rate high death rate.
● Constant Population (Stationary pyramid): Bell shaped as People in different age
groups are equally distributed. Number of births deaths roughly balance each other.
Declining Population
(Constrictive pyramid): This
pyramid has narrow base and
tapered top indicating low birth
INDU
and death rates. (Lesser
A B
IM
population in younger age and

H
more population in older age)
 Regional variations in age
structure pyramids: Kerala
is beginning to acquire an
age structure like that of

U
developed countries. UP age

B I D
structure is like that of a less

N
developed country and India

IM A as a whole is some wherein

the middle.

H
1. Austroasiatic languages. (2022, 10M)
2. Describe the methods adopted by Sir Herbert Hope Risley in classifying Indian
population. What are the criticisms against Risley’s classification. (2022,15
marks)

NDU
3. Distribution of Tibeto-Burman group of languages in India.(2019,10M)

I
B
4. Race is a myth. Justify its present-day relevance. ( 2018, 10M )

A
M
5. What are the various factors influencing population growth in India. Discuss.
( 2018, 15M )
HI
6. Austro-asiatic linguistic groups in India. ( 2017, 10M)
7. Give your assessment of the reasons for the imbalance in the sex ratio in India.
( 2017, 20M )
8. Give a critical assessment of 'Negrito Problem' in India. (,2016,15M)
1. Briefly describe the classical model of ethnic and linguistic classifications
of Indian population. Discuss its relevance today. (15M,2015)
2. Outline the distribution of Dravidian languages in India and describe their
cultural significance. (2015, 15M)

DU
3. Major linguistic divisions of India ( 10M,2014)

IN
B
4. Biogenetic variations of Indian tribes (2014,2005,2003)(10M)

IM A
5. Major linguistic divisions of India ( 2014, 10m )

H
6. Contribution of H. H. Risley to the ‘Aryan’ debate ( 2014, 10m )
7. Describe the linguistic elements in Indian population.( 15M, 2011)
8. Discuss the relevance of Guha’s classification in the context of India’s
ethnic groups (2010,15M)
9. Dravidian languages and their subgroups (2023, 10M)
1. Critically examine the factors responsible for high population growth in India
and suggest suitable measures for population control (30+15 marks 2010)
2. Mediterranean element in Indian population (2008, 10M)
3. Is Risley’s classification of Indian population valid ? critically discuss with
the suitable examples ( 2008,15M)

INDU
B
4. Describe ethnic elements in the Indian population focusing either on Risley’s

M A
or Guha’s classification (2007, 15M)

I
H
5. Write in brief about the population growth in India indicating causes and
measures of its control (2006, 30M)
6. Demographic transition in India (2004)
7. Critically compare Risely’s and Sarkar’s approaches to the classification of
peoples of India.