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Introduction to Research *

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 Introduction to Research*
M S Sridhar@

This opening block has four units dealing with ‘Introduction to Research’, ‘Typology of Research’,
‘Ethics of Research’, and ‘Planning and Writing Research Proposal’.

Unit 1 briefly explains the concept, significance, meaning and definition of research. Also
enumerates the need, purpose, and objectives of research. Here the scientific method is contrasted
with the research method.

Research is a voyage of discovery through careful and critical inquiry seeking facts for principles and
is a systematized effort and a scientific investigation to gain new knowledge. Research methodology
is the science of studying how research is done scientifically. It provides ‘tools of the trade’ to carry
out research. In other words, Research is a voyage of discovery or a journey from the known to
unknown, an art of scientific investigation and a systematized effort to find the truth. One of the basic
postulates of ‘scientific method’ is that it is the method of all logically trained minds. In addition, it is
in pursuit of truth as determined by logical considerations. In the process, scientific method classifies
facts, sees their mutual relation through experimentation, observation, logical arguments from accepted
postulates. In brief, Scientific Method:
1. Relies on empirical evidence (empiricism)
2. Utilizes relevant concepts
3. Is committed to only objective considerations
4. Presupposes ethical neutrality
5. Results into probabilistic predictions
6. Methodology is made known to all for critical scrutiny and testing through replication
7. Aims at formulating most general axioms or scientific theories
8. Encourages rigorous, impersonal mode of procedure dictated by the demands of logic and
objective procedure
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
* Editorial Introduction to Block 1: Research methods. KSOU M.Lib.I.Sc. Semester-I, Course/Paper: Research
methods and statistical techniques.
@ Former Head, Library and Documentation, U R Rao Satellite Centre, ISRO, Bangalore.

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Research is both dynamic and complex process. Researchers never move in a straight line from
finding a topic to final stage of drafting and revision of thesis. Real research loops back and forth,
moving forward a step or two, going back and moving ahead again, anticipating stages not yet begun.
However carefully one plans, research follows a crooked path, taking unexpected turns, even looping
back on itself. It is better to work through step-by-step and when one can manage the parts, one can
manage the whole.

Research is a complex process as it involves many implicit mysterious creative processes turning a
vague interest into a problem worth posing and solving, building an argument that motivates readers
to accept researcher claim. One must anticipate the reservations of thoughtful but critical readers and
then respond appropriately creating an introduction and conclusion that answer the toughest of
questions. The final reading one’s own writing should be as others may, and thereby learn the need
for when and how to revise it.

Tenets of Scientific Faith:

1. DETERMINISM: Events have causes that events are determined by other circumstances, i.e.. causal
links can eventually be uncovered and understood
2. EMPIRICISM: Finding is verifiable by observation and ‘evidence’ (data)
3. PRINCIPLES OF PARSIMONY: The phenomenon should be explained in the most economical
way possible
4. GENERALITY: generalization is more problematic in social and behavioral sciences than natural
sciences

Qualities of Good Research:

1. SYSTEMATIC - Reject the use of guessing and intuition, but does not rule out creative thinking
2. CONTROLLED – Variables are identified and controlled, wherever possible
3. LOGICAL - Guided by rules of logical reasoning and logical process of induction and deduction; Inductive
and deductive investigations lend greater support for research findings
4. EMPIRICAL- Provides a basis for external validity to results (validation); Research is based on
facts; Observable data forms a sound basis for validity of research
5. REPLICABLE - The results of the research can be verified by repeating the study to substantiate
the basis for decisions

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6. SELF CORRECTING – Has built in mechanism and kept open to public scrutiny by fellow
professionals

Benefits of research methodology

1. Advancement of wealth of human knowledge
2. ‘Tools of the trade’ to carry out research; Provides tools to look at things in life objectively
3. Develops a critical and scientific attitude, disciplined thinking or a ‘bent of mind’ to observe
objectively (scientific deduction & inductive thinking); Skills of research will pay-off in long term
particularly in the ‘age of information’ (or too often of misinformation)
4. Enriches practitioner and his practices; Provides chance to study a subject in depth; Enable us to
make intelligent decisions; Understand the material which no other kind of work can match
5. As consumers of research output helps to inculcate the ability to evaluate and use results of earlier
research with reasonable confidence and take rational decisions
6. Doing research is the best way to learn to read and think critically
7. Research as a problem-solving tool and a movement involves open mind, positive attitude, and
curiosity to know the unknown. The success of the movement is towards advancement,
development and reaching out to truth. It may also turnout to be a rebuff and a retreat. If succeeded
it gives satisfaction, if fails it is a lesson or experience.

Additional Benefits in case of Librarianship:

i. Helps to understand the ‘researcher’ as a user of library
ii. Helps to learn how to use libraries and other information resources
iii. Enables critical evaluation of literature
iv. Develops special interests and skills
v. Helps to understand attitude of others
vi. Creates awareness of special needs of research process
vii. Facilitates reference and information service

Benefits of Research Assignments to Students

1. Good assignments establish outcomes beyond a product to be evaluated
2. Good assignments help students to learn about their audience
3. Good assignments create scenarios that are rich in contextual information
4. Good assignments provide interim readers
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5. As with any real project, good assignments give students time and a schedule of interim deadlines

Unit 2 discusses the design typology to enable researchers to choose the one most appropriate to
their problems. Few important contrasting types of research like basic versus applied research,
quantitative versus qualitative research as well as unique methods such as diagnostic research, action
research are also discussed and finally the unit enlists qualities of good research.

Research Design is an outline of what the researcher will do and a blueprint for the collection,
measurement, and analysis of data. It is a conceptual structure for arrangement of conditions for
collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose
with economy in procedure

Significance and Benefits of Research Design:

1. Helps smooth and efficient sailing (sets boundaries and prevents blind search) in the voyage from
known to unknown and serves as a guidepost
2. Yields maximum information with least efforts and avoids collection of unnecessary data. Thus
helps in better collection of material and testing of hypothesis
3. Costs least in terms of effort, time, and money. Helps allocating limited resources by posing
crucial choices giving optimum efficiency and maximum reliability to the results
4. Provides firm foundation to the endeavor and more accurate results
5. Averts misleading conclusions and thoughtless futile exercise and thus leads to desired type of
study
6. Helps organising one’s ideas
7. Gives chance to foresee flaws and inadequacies (anticipates problems)
8. Incorporates by learning from others critical comments and evaluations
9. Like a successful journey,
✓ Broadens your mind
✓ Gives fascinating and exciting experience
✓ Gives insight into world around you
✓ Provides opportunity to meet people
✓ Gives fun and reward, but at times, very tedious and monotonous too

Design Typology Criteria (Categorization of Research Design):

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 1. The degree of formulation of problem
a. Exploratory or Formulatory Research
b. Descriptive, Diagnostic, and Analytical Research
2. The topical scope
a. Historical study
b. Survey
c. Delphi Study
c. Case Study
d. Accounts, Episodes, Story of experience
e. Statistical Study
3. The search environment, (the field or lab setting)
a. Survey Research
b. Lab Experiment
4. The time dimension
a. Cross Sectional (One time)
b. Longitudinal, Trend, Developmental (also called ‘Follow up’ or ‘Cohort’ Studies in UK and
‘Panel Studies’ in USA)
5. The mode of data collection
a. Survey Research
b. Observational Study
6. The manipulation of the variables under study
a. Experimental (Hypothesis Testing)
b. Ex post facto Study
7. The nature of the relationship among variables
a. Causal and Prediction
b. Descriptive and Relational (i) Association (ii) Correlation
8. a. Conceptual (Fundamental, Basic, Pure) Research
b. Empirical (Applied, Action) Research
9. a. Conclusion oriented Research
b. Decision oriented Research
10. Measurability and Nature of Data
a. Qualitative Study
b. Quantitative Study
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Deciding which Research Design/ Methodology:
The quality of a research project depends, among the other things, upon the suitability of the method
selected. Hence care should be taken in selecting the appropriate method of research for any project.
A thorough knowledge of types/ methods of research is essential for this purpose. In deciding which is
the best and ‘scientific’ method one should have these tips in mind.
• All designs/ methodologies have their specific strengths and weaknesses
• ‘Quantitative does not equal positivism’; Don’t fall into the trap that quantitative research is
‘better’ than qualitative research; neither is better than the other; both have their strengths and
weaknesses;
• Often researchers say they have collected ‘rich data’ to mean large amount of quantitative
data, which may not be more reliable and relevant for the purpose than meticulously elicited
descriptive qualitative data
• Experts even say simple dichotomy fails to account for the breadth of collection and analysis
techniques currently in use and urge abandoning the dichotomy between “qualitative” and
“quantitative” labels

Tips for deciding qualitative or quantitative research:

Qualitative research (sociology origin) emphasises on interpretative analysis and understanding the
problem, while the quantitative research (termed ‘positivism’) the emphasises on causal analysis and
predictive understanding of the problem. Quantitative studies have been employed inappropriately in
user studies without theoretical framework. Often qualitative studies are deployed to confront lack of
theory of user studies. Consequently, many findings of quantitative studies have no immediate
utilization. Use of qualitative method as a preliminary to quantitative research helps to uncover the
facts of everyday life and to understand the needs of users. Both qualitative and quantitative approaches
to be combined to produce holistic view and robust data required to triangulate and to validate data. In
case of doubt, have these tips:
• Relook at the five ‘Ws’ of problem selection
• Clues will start emerging about best form of inquiry
• Look at the words you have used
➢ ‘How many’, ‘test’, ‘verify’, ‘how often’ or ‘how satisfied’, etc. suggest quantitative
➢ ‘discover’, ‘motivation’, ‘experiences’, ‘think/ thoughts’, ‘problems’, or ‘behave/ behaviour’,
etc. suggest qualitative

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 ➢ If a combination of these words is written, combine both qualitative and quantitative research,
which is called triangulation and it will enable counteracting the weaknesses in both
qualitative and quantitative research

Unit 3 provides a framework for ‘Research Ethics’ explaining what to do and what not to do. Also
has a special section on ‘Ethics in LIS Research’. The unit explains the related concepts and issues
like misconduct, mistreatment, falsification and fabrication of data, piracy, and plagiarism.

Research is often compared to construction of building, where each researcher places his brick in the
right way in right place knowing the placement of previous bricks (research) and making way for
future placement of bricks (research) as per some rules (ethics) so that the wall grows and is strong
enough. Here the building is the body of knowledge. In this way research, as a profound social
activity, connects us to those who, in future, will use our results through our sources as well as with
those whose results of past research we have used through their sources. Hence in addition to
methodology and techniques, we need to have broader ‘ethics of civil communication’ as well as
research ethics. This is the way we construct strong bonds within specialized community.

‘Research ethics’ deal with a range of options and choices, both moral and immoral, in the process of
research. For that purpose, we need to define individual moral principles. Plagiarism, claiming credit
for results of others, misreporting sources or inventing results, data with questionable accuracy,
concealing objections that cannot be rebutted, caricaturing or distorting opposing views, destroying,
or concealing sources and data are important for those who follow ethics. Between do’s and don’ts of
research, we should affirmatively choose do’s for the integrity of the research work of the community
coupled with set moral standards having larger ethical dimension. Research done in the best interests
of others and the community is also done in our own interest. Apart from the researcher’s integrity,
any research involving human subjects requires ethical clearance. If human beings are involved as
research participants, one is required to obtain ethical clearance before implementing such a research
project. In many institutions, before research is conducted, it must be approved by an ‘ethics
committee’ to serve the public interest and to ensure that research is conducted appropriately.
Research Ethics Committees or Institutional Review Boards are mandated with the task of reviewing
research protocols to ensure that they are ethically sound.

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Unit 4 enumerates research process, plan, and proposal as part of overall research design and
various steps in design of research are explained. Steps include formulating a research problem,
literature survey for research, developing research hypothesis, determining sample, data collection,
analysis, and interpretation, testing of hypothesis, and writing report. The unit provides some
guidelines for writing research proposals.

Tips for Writing Research Proposal:

• Check prescribed format, if any
• Establish you have the required background knowledge and/or experience to effectively carry
out the proposed research
• Ensure proposed methods will address the problem identified and that you are able to display
an understanding of these methods
• There must be good match between the issues addressed and the approach/ method adopted
• Produce sufficiently clear and detailed protocol for approval, grant so as to enable detailed
arrangements and discussion
• Planning the proposal should be directed towards producing a written protocol that clearly and
precisely define:
✓ The aims and objectives
✓ The nature of the measurements to be made
✓ The population to be studied
✓ The ways in which results are to be interpreted
✓ to ensure all involved in the project to have a clear idea of the aims to be achieved and
procedures to be adopted

Contents and Structure of Research Proposal

Research proposals in general will cover the same basic steps i.e., description of a problem or issue, a
review of relevant literature, identification of research questions or hypotheses, description of
appropriate methods to address those issues. Though, Different disciplines have different styles in how
they structure the proposal, general structure of research proposal is given below:
1. Introduction highlights background, need and precise interest and contains background of the
research topic, how research problem was identified, statement of the problem, the purpose of
study and the research questions raised
2. Title should be as short and explanatory as possible
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3. Problem – Definition, Core nature and importance/ significance
-The basic organization: The investigators; Place and time of study; Likely duration
4. Background and Review of past research
- highlight significant achievements
- identify gaps and justification for present study
Literature review part of the proposal should have preliminary review of professional
literature to familiarize the researcher’s current state of knowledge. It helps in understanding
the problem and hypotheses that others have studied. It also helps in clarification of the
concepts, theories, major variables involved, operational definitions and research methods used
in the past. Thus, contributes to the cumulative nature of existing knowledge and direction to
the research.
5. Research Methodology (Typology of research design) highlights the methods of research,
population identified, sampling technique chosen, sample size, data collection tools identified
or developed for the study, data analysis techniques adopted, statistical tools identified and
context in which all the tools and techniques will be used in the study to achieve greater
precision.
6. Aims, objectives, hypotheses and conceptual model or theoretical framework
- Reasonable number of challenging but not impossible special objectives grouped as primary
and secondary should be stated
- All questions identified and specified in the introductory part of the proposal will take the
form of objectives of the study.
- Formation and development of structure of relationships among variables indicating
delineated logical connections and assumptions explained as framework or model
- Conceptually clear, specific, and anticipated outcome stated as hypotheses
Hypothesis part of the proposal gives hypothetical statements or tentative assumptions, which
must be tested empirically with data are given. There may be one general hypothesis, but few
sub-hypotheses or alternative hypotheses may also be provided. While formulating hypothesis,
a researcher will definitely does not know whether it will be rejected or accepted. A hypothesis
is constructed and tested, if it is rejected, another one is formulated and if it is accepted, it is
incorporated in the scientific body of knowledge.
7. Operational definition of concepts (& terms) are required for ease of measurements
8. Scope and Limitations
- help drawing boundaries to make the work manageable
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 - Scope plays vital role in literature search and review
- Well-defined scope of research will be more effective; consider the following questions:
➢ What time (period)?
➢ What geographical area?
➢ What age group, gender, and place of origin of people included?
➢ Dates of publication to be included
➢ Publications from other countries?
➢ Other languages and scripts?
➢ Perspectives to be considered? - philosophical, political, psychological, etc.
- Delimiting the scope and dimensions is with respect to:
i. Topic Scope (Breadth and Depth)
ii. Geographical Area (Space Coordinate)
iii. Reference Period (Time Coordinate)
iv. Units of Analysis
v. Type of Institutions / Respondents
vi. Issues to be analysed (Characteristics of special interest)
vii. Environmental Conditions
How much of the subject area, time zone covered in the study are the scope of the study and
what is not going to be covered/ studied in detail, during the research process will become
limitation of the study.
9. Significance of the study and expected utility of the findings - How it is going to enrich
theory or practice
10. Sampling strategy - Method, Size and Process
11. Data collection methods and tools
Primary data
Secondary data
Materials: quantity, quality, and sources
Statistical techniques to be used
12. Plan of Analysis
13. Timetable / Schedule - as detailed as possible with range of date and action as columns; It
is better to add a few extra weeks for each section
14. Budget and resources - What resources are needed and from where they are expected;
Avoid expensive research and methods with limited budget and time
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 - Funding body may require accurate estimation and assure that you have not over-budgeted
15. Chapter scheme
16. Plan for dissemination of result
17. End protocol: References, Draft number, Date

Qualities of Good Research Plan:

1. Each problem / research work is unique (novel); demands unique research design and unique
combination of methods and techniques; A good research design is half the battle
2. Strategies should reflect the theories being investigated and hypothesized specific theoretical
expectations are incorporated
3. No ideal design; tradeoff between efforts and fruits
4. Comprehensive: Consider many different aspects
5. Flexible
6. Appropriate (to the purpose / objective)
7. Efficient, economical, should have maximum reliability, minimum biases and smallest error;
Should preserves objectivity, validity, reliability, and generalizability; be cautious about
differences concerning cause and effect
8. Chooses appropriate combination of methods and techniques based on the following while
writing the research proposal:
i. Objectives
ii. Possible implications of results
iii. Overall environment
iv. Current knowledge
v. Suitability to problem
vi. Available resources
vii. Competence of researcher and his staff
viii. Kind of data required

Note that it is easy to suggest a problem but difficult to make a good research design and praposal. It
is important that the planning should be directed towards producing a written protocol. Force yourself
to define precisely:
✔ The aims and objectives

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 ✔ The nature of the measurements to be made
✔ The population to be studied

✔ The ways in which results are to be interpreted

✔ Ensure that all involved in the project to have a clear idea of the aims to be achieved and
procedures to be adopted

Tips and Checklist for proposal:

❑ Problem should be sufficiently important and relevant to the funding body/ researcher
❑ It should be useful and has implications for policy and practice
❑ The research must be unique and offer new insight or development
❑ Don’t have too obvious and often repeated topic; that indicates lack of background research
and literature review
❑ Don’t be over-ambitious and have difficult to achieve topic
❑ Should have clear and succinct title, aims and objectives
❑ Conduct enough in-depth background research to have comprehensive and thorough
background supported by literature review
❑ Give careful thought to resources and budget required
❑ Thoroughly worked realistic and achievable timetable covering all events and eventualities
❑ Match the approach adopted with issues addressed
❑ Explain data collection and data analysis methods with sufficient detail

Why research proposals Fail?

• Unclear or vague aims and objectives
• Mismatch between the approach adopted and the issues addressed
• Too ambitious and difficult to achieve in the timescale
• The researcher does not seem to have conducted enough in-depth background research.
• Problem is of insufficient importance
• Information about the data collection and data analysis methods are insufficiently detailed
• Timescale is inappropriate or unrealistic
• Resources and budget have not been carefully thought out
• “This topic has been done too many times before” indicates a clear lack in background research
and literature review

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