ASSIGNMENT # 02

NAME: BILAL AHMED

REG NO: FA22-CVE-056

COURSE: ADVANCED SURVEYING

SUBMITTED TO: SIR JUNAID AMIN

DATE: 10 JUNE, 2024

CULMINATION:

It is the passage of Celestial objects (such as stars, moon, sun, a planet or a deep sky object)
across the observer’s local meridian.

TERMINOLOGIES:
Following are the terminologies used in process of culmination:

1. CALESTIAL SPHERE:
The celestial sphere is an imaginary sphere surrounding the Earth to which the stars, planets,
and other celestial objects appear to be attached.

The celestial sphere is divided into:

➢ Stars and constellations

➢ Planets and their orbits
➢ The Sun and Moon
➢ 4. The ecliptic (the path the Sun appears to follow)
➢ 5. The celestial equator (an extension of the Earth’s equator) ➢ 6. The celestial poles
(extensions of the Earth’s poles)

2. NORTH AND SOUTH POLE:

These are the points joining the axis of rotation (polar axis) of earth.

3. EQUATOR:
If circle is drawn perpendicularly on polar circle, it is called equator of the Earth.

4. INTERNATIONAL EQUATOR:
The prime meridian is zero degrees longitude and divides Earth into the Western and Eastern
hemispheres.

It Is passing from the Greenwich city in UK.

5. MERIDIAN OF THE OBSERVER:

If we are anywhere on the earth’s surface that will be our point of observation. If we join our
observation point with plane and drawing the great circle around earth that is called meridian of
observer.

ROTATION OF EARTH:
We know that earth is rotating from west to east (i.e. in anticlockwise direction) and celestial
bodies are fixed.
Apparently it looks like sun, moon and stars are moving and that is their apparent movement but
in reality earth is rotating from west to east.
Suppose earth is rotating and a star is exactly above the observer meridian and the time is 12pm .
At 12pm upper side of the meridian is in line with the star but when earth rotate and lower side
of the meridian comes in line with star then time will be 12am. This is because in one rotation of
the earth meridian of the observer crosses the star two times.
Thus stars, sun and heavenly body crosses the observer meridian two times in one rotation
of the earth.

UPPER TRANSIT AND LOWER TRANSIT:

When a star or other heavenly body crosses the observer meridian it is said to be transit or
culminate.
When heavenly body crosses the upper side of the meridian, it is called upper transit or upper
culmination.
When heavenly body crosses the lower side of the meridian, it is called lower transit or lower
culmination.

TIME

Time is an important parameter in astronomy.

Time is the continuous sequence of existence of an events that occurs in apparently irreversible
succession from past through the present into future.
The measurement of time is based upon the apparent motion of earth’s rotation on its axis.

EARTH’S ROTATION AROUND THE SUN:

Earth completes one revolution around the sun in one year i.e. covering angle of 360 degrees in
365 days.

Consider a situation as in the figure:

Suppose earth is in a position as in the figure and the person is standing there and at specific
time he notes the position of sun.
Next day, standing on the same position with same time he notes the position of sun. Position of
the sun has changed. Thus earth is changing it’s position approximately 1° or 0.986 degree per
day.

We are not feeling the earth’s rotation because our position with respect to earth is fixed.
Apparently sun is moving, if we trace the revolution of sun then a path will become. That path is
called ecliptic.
KINDS OF TIME

There are four kinds of time

1. Sidereal time
2. Apparent Solar Time
3. Mean Solar Time
4. Standard Time
First two types of time is used by Astronomers while on the surface of earth we are
dealing with the term mean solar time and standard time.

1. SIDEREAL TIME:
Time when its measurement based on apparent motion of stars, is called sidereal time. OR
When time is measurement from vernal equinox then time interval between two successive upper
transit of vernal equinox is called one sidereal day.

VERNAL EQUINOX:
It is the point where ecliptic intersect the celestial equator.
VERNAL EQUINOX MERIDIAN :
The projection of vernal equinox is on the earth. If that point is joined with the earth’s pole and
drawn meridian around the earth, it is called vernal equinox meridian. The vernal equinox
meridian, also known as the celestial meridian.

ONE SIDEREAL DAY:

One sidereal day is the time it takes the Earth to rotate once on its axis relative to the fixed stars.

2. APPARENT SOLAR TIME:

It is the time when measurement is based on daily motion of sun in time interval between two
successive lower transit of center of sun over same meridian.

TWO SUCCESSIVE LOWER TRANSIT:

When the sun starts from lower transit of meridian and comes back there after rotation, it is
called two successive lower transit and the interval called one mean solar day.

3. MEAN SOLAR TIME OR MEAN TIME:

It is the time measured by the apparent or dinrnal motion of the mean sun.

MEAN SUN:
Actually sun is following an ecliptical path in one year. If we assume the apparent or average
movement of the sun along celestial equator, it is called mean sun.
ONE MEAN SOLAR DAY:
The mean solar day is the average of all the apparent solar days of the year.

CIVIL TIME:
The time which is in common use by the people is the mean solar time or the civil time.

MEAN SOLAR DAY:

The time interval between two successive lower transits of the mean sun over the same meridian
is called a mean solar day or civil day (24 hr).

➢ One mean solar day is divided into 24 parts called 1 hour.

➢ Duration of 1 hr is divided into 60 parts called 1 minute.
➢ 1 minute is divided into 60 parts called 1 second.

SYSTEM OF MEAN SOLAR TIME:

There are two systems of mean solar time:

1.Civil Time
2.Astronomical time Important points:

➢ The point of intersection between earth’s equator and prime meridian is zero degree.
➢ Right side of the zero degree is eastern hemisphere.
➢ Left side of the zero degree is the western hemisphere.
➢ If sun is on the upper side of prime meridian, it is called upper transit and if it is on lower
side of prime meridian then called lower transit.
➢ Mean solar day starts when sun is in lower transit position with prime meridian i.e. time
will be:
00:00:00 (zero hour zero minute and zero second)
➢ When sun is in line with lower transit of prime meridian then events will take place and
the interval between two events will be 1 day which will be divided into 24 parts.

CIVIL AND ASTRONOMICAL TIME:

Before 31st December,1924

ASTRONOMICAL TIME:
➢ It was considered that when sun is on upper transit of prime meridian, day will start i.e.
time will be 00:00:00
➢ When sun is on the lower transit of prime meridian then 12 hours of the day completed
➢ And when sun comes back on the upper transit of prime meridian then 24 hours
completed.
CIVIL TIME:
➢ It was considered that when sun is on lower transit of prime meridian day will start i.e.
time will be 00:00:00
 ➢ When sun is on the upper transit of prime meridian then 12 hours of the day completed
➢ And when sun comes back on the lower transit of prime meridian then 24 hours
completed.

After 1925,

Both concepts were considered same i.e. when sun is on the lower transit of prime
meridian then day starts in civil as well as astronomical time.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CIVIL AND ASTRONOMICAL TIME:

1. Civil time is divided into two categories

➢ Category 1: From lower transit of prime meridian to upper transit of prime meridian is
divided from 0 to 12 parts i.e. 0-12am (anti meridian)
➢ Category 2: From upper transit of prime meridian to lower transit of prime meridian is
divided from 0 to 12 parts i.e. 0-12pm (prime meridian)

2.Astronomical time is measured from 0 to 24.

RELATION:

➢ When civil time is am then:

Civil time = Astronomical time

➢ When civil time is pm then:

Astronomical time = Civil time + 12

For example:

If civil time is 2am then astronomical time will be 14.

STANDARD TIME:
In order to avoid confusion arising from the use of different local times by the people, it is
necessary to adopt the mean time on a particular meridian as the standard time for the whole of a
country. This meridian is known as the standard meridian and usually lies an exact number of
hours from Greenwich.
The mean time associated with this meridian is called the standard time which is kept by all
watches throughout the country.
EXPLANATION:
On earth there are 24 standard meridian and the angle between two meridian is 15 degree.
Time difference between two meridian is 1 hour because there are 24 meridians and 24 hours.

15 degree longitude = 1 hour mean solar time

Time on the west side from the prime meridian is less while time on east side from prime
meridian is more.
Suppose a meridian is passing from a country which is at 30 degree from prime meridian so the
time difference of that country with prime meridian is 2 hours. If sun is on prime meridian time
will be 12am and the time in the country whose meridian is at 30 degree from prime meridian
will be 10am.

It shows that standard meridian which are on the west side of prime meridian, time will be
subtracted from prime meridian while standard meridian which are on the east side of prime
meridian, time will be added into prime meridian.

STANDARD MERIDIAN OF PAKISTAN:

Standard meridian of Pakistan is at 75 degree from prime meridian. We know that angular
difference between meridian is 15 degree so the time difference between prime meridian and
standard meridian of Pakistan is 5 hours because:

1 hour = 15 degree
5 hours = 75 degree
Time of Pakistan is standardized with respect to this Standard meridian. Standard meridian of
Pakistan is passes through Shakargarh, a tehsil located in Narowal District, Punjab, Pakistan.

Before independence:
Before 1907, standard time (ST) was,

ST = Greenwich mean time + 05:30

Because standard meridian was at 82.5 degree from prime meridian.

82.5 degree = 05:30

According to this , standard time of Pakistan is the time on prime meridian plus 05:30

which means that if sun is on prime meridian then time in Pakistan will be 05:30 After

1951:
One of the mathematician Mehmood Anwar define the Pakistan standard meridian passes from
Shakargar at 75 degree from prime meridian. Adding 5 hours in Greenwich time will becomes
Pakistan standard time. In 1951, this standard time was named Karachi time and for East
Pakistan adding 6 hours in Greenwich time and this will be their standard time because for East
Pakistan standard meridian is at 90 degree from prime meridian.

After 1971,
Karachi time was converted into Pakistan’s Standard time and that was based on standard
meridian passing from Shakargar at angle of 75 degree from prime meridian. PST =
GMT + 05:00

LOCAL TIME:
Standard time will be same through out the country but local time will be different.
For finding the local time of any point we find the angular distance of that point from standard
meridian.
Standard meridian of Pakistan is passing from Shakargar. The countries which are on the east
side of standard meridian local time (L.T) will be :

L.T = ST + 12 minutes

The countries which are on the west side of the prime meridian local time (L.T) will be:
L.T = ST – 20 minutes For

example:

If the standard time is 11:00 am then for a country on east side,

L.T = 11:00 + 12 minutes L.T = 11:12am

And for the country on west side of standard meridian,

L.T = 11:00 – 20 minutes

L.T = 10:40am

Practical Applications:

1. Navigation:
Accurate determination of latitude and longitude relies on understanding the celestial sphere,
poles, equator, and meridians.
2. Astronomy:
Knowing culmination times and transit times helps schedule observations and research celestial
events.
3. Timekeeping:
Understanding different types of time (solar, sidereal, mean solar) ensures accurate clock settings
and coordination.
4. Space Exploration:
Grasping these concepts is crucial for space mission planning, navigation, and communication.
5. Surveying:
Precise determination of meridians and latitudes is essential for mapping and property
boundaries.
6. Weather Forecasting:
Understanding the Earth's orientation and movement helps predict weather patterns and climate
changes.
7. Telecommunications:
Accurate timekeeping and coordinate systems enable global communication networks.
8. GPS Technology: Relies on celestial mechanics and precise timing to provide location and
time information.

Conclusion:
The celestial sphere, North and South Poles, Equator, and meridians help us understand the
Earth's place in the universe. The culmination, upper and lower transits, and different types of
time (solar, sidereal, universal) are all connected to how we measure time and navigate. These
concepts work together like a big puzzle, helping us make sense of the stars, planets, and our
own place on Earth. By understanding these ideas, we can better appreciate the beauty and
complexity of the world around us.
we can better appreciate the complexity and beauty of the celestial world and its applications in
modern society.

Reference:
Azeemi, E. A. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SAD-rZ7IqcU&t=621s
GPT, C. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://wa.me/13135550002?s=5